The author presented a study of English, which differs from other alphabetic languages as words have more letter combinations than sounds. The potential audience appears to be teachers concerned with addressing the needs of pupils with literacy problems. The context of the research was the use of ‘a deficient technology’. In Spencer’s terms written English is an inefficient tool for communication because it is an imperfect code that does not conform to specific rules. This impedes reading and writing, which:
‘Will incur additional costs … higher rates of illiteracy and more energy and time spent in learning.’
(Spencer 2002: 16)
Thus the aim was to evaluate written English to assess how word characteristics affect proficiency in spelling and reading.
Through previous research (1999) Spencer devised a Predictive Spelling and Reading Model that indicated contributing factors making English words difficult to spell. In this paper the 150 most frequently used words in the English language were analysed for factors affecting spelling and reading:
- frequency of usage;
- phonemic length;
- phonetic difference;
- ‘tricky phoneme value’.
On this basis words were classified as ‘easy’, ‘moderate’ and ‘difficult’, (analysed word
lists were included).
In the first experiment data was collected from 306 pupils in Years 2-6 (7 to 11 years) in an urban primary school in Hull. Words were randomly assigned to 5 lists of 30 words, administered by class teachers as spelling tests on 5 consecutive days. Only perfect responses were accepted, thus scoring was consistent.
To determine how the 4 factors contributed to spelling difficulty, data analysis was carried out using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS), (p.20), applying regression methods, the degree of association between the variables. As details of the SPSS are not available one must assume such a standardised measure is appropriate for the purpose.
According to Spencer all factors were significant in Years 2 to 6, apart from word frequency in Year 4 and phonemic length in Year 6. The 4 factors accounted for 40% to 60% of spelling variability. When data was combined and re-analysed, the factors accounted for 63% of the variability of spelling the150 words by all children. However, there is no evidence to support this, raising doubt about reliability. Mean spelling scores for all Years are given (Table 2, p. 20), but there is no indication of each Year Group’s spelling performance for the three lists. Thus there is no reliable evidence that:
‘… after two years of extra schooling, the least able 9-year olds have only reached the same level of proficiency on the moderate words than the 7-year olds had attained on the easy words.’
(op cit: p. 22)
Instead, Spencer analysed individual words to determine the percentage spelled correctly and expressed the results as ranges. This fails to give a representative picture and is inconclusive, particularly as the range for ‘difficult’ words is wide, from 33.8% (‘course’) to 80.1% (‘by’). An overall score for each type of list would have been more informative.
The influence of the factors is presented in terms of mean values. Children experienced increasing difficulty with uncommon words, but ‘tricky’ phonemes and phonetic difference were the two most significant factors. Words with obscure phonemic representations were more difficult to spell, with 55% in the ‘easy’ category spelled correctly but only 12% in the ‘difficult’, (Figure 1a, p. 21). As the number of letters per phoneme increased spelling performance deteriorated, (Figure 1b, p. 21). The impact of obscure phonemic forms was particularly noticeable with less able children, only 65% of whom in each year group were able to spell ‘easy’ words and 10% could spell ‘difficult’ words (p. 22). In this instance results for the least able pupils in each Year Group are presented as a table (Figure 2, p. 22), clearly showing how performance fell as words became more difficult.
In a second experiment reading data from a class of 28, Year 2 children in a similar Hull school was analysed for the same factors. The results indicated that all are significant, but explain less of the variability in reading difficulty: ‘reading 42% spelling 62%’ (p.23). Low phoneticity assisted performance, but again ‘tricky’ phonemes and phonetic difference had the strongest negative effect.
Spencer highlighted the difficulties in acquiring common words that constitute 50% of texts. He suggested that the irregularity of English affects the acquisition of decoding skills, speed and accuracy, as well as lexical recall. Without rules to aid assimilation or facilitate word building unfamiliar words must be deciphered. This affects processing, hinders progress and affects less able children who cannot self-teach. Spencer thus asserts that without external support: ‘many children will be prevented from making progress.’ (P. 24)
Spencer studied words from The British American English Corpus, (Hofland and Johannson, 1982) commonly used in linguistic studies (Sampson, 1997; Sanhofer, Smith and Luo, 2000), which thus appears to be a sound basis and his findings are plausible. However, there are doubts about the reliability of the results and a possible weakness in the design, which Spencer acknowledged:
‘This is not a longitudinal study.’
(op cit, p. 22).
Year 2 pupils’ ability to spell is compared with the performance of Year 6 children and the conclusion reached is that:
‘After 3 extra years, the least able 10-year olds are still having problems with the difficult words and (have) ... not reached the same level of proficiency that the 7-year olds reached for the easy words.’
(op cit: p. 22)
The findings indicate this, but tracking a cohort would have given the research greater reliability; only two schools were studied and although ‘they perform at average national levels’ (p. 17) and, in addition there is no accounting for different teacher’ effectiveness.
Spencer did not discuss the reading records used in the studies; he merely stated that these were obtained from school records, which included ‘several standardised reading tests that are widely used in UK schools.’ (P. 17) Different tests and different designs show significant variation. Unless one test has been administered consistently, there is doubt about the reliability of the reading quotients and the comparison between the schools.
Despite reservations the study makes clear that a purely phonetic approach to teaching English is inadequate. Spencer argued that teachers need to a find a compromise ‘between the extremes of purely phonic or ‘look and say’ methods.’ (P. 24) This supports McGuiness’s (1998) demonstration of the reciprocal nature of reading and spelling, which suggests that teaching the reversibility of English as a code is essential for an effective literacy programme. It appears that carefully sequenced procedures, which introduce representation of phonemes according to frequency of usage, are more likely to be successful than the mixed approached of the NLS.
Implications for personal practice
The study stimulated significant changes to my work with nine Year 3 Learning Support children in the school, which follows the National Curriculum. All had transferred from the Infants, at the Action stage of the Revised Code of Practice and caused concern when spelling and reading scores were assessed at the end of Term 2. Pupils to are expected to know 48 high-frequency words at the end of KS2; after four terms our children were still significantly under performing in specific tests (Chart 1 and Table 1, Appendices p. 36). Spelling posed the greatest problem, with all scores below 50%: pupils had not internalised irregular words. This indicated an urgent need to re-evaluate teaching methods and materials, to identify weaknesses in delivery and develop a plan to help pupils overcome their overall confusion and problems in adding high-frequency words to their lexical store.
How the research findings were used:
A workplace project was developed from my findings, amalgamating different elements of the research to form a programme to instruct pupils in the complexities of the English code and high-frequency words in particular. The entire programme was geared to addressing the problems posed by an inconsistent orthography, instead of those caused by specific learning difficulties. The Learning Support Team was keen to implement changes. After negotiations with the Senior Management, I used the research to develop an Action Plan (Appendices p.37) to implement revised strategies and approaches, (see Rationale, Appendices p. 38). The following methodology was adopted (see also Pedagogical Approach, Appendices p.41):
-
Learning Support implemented Torgenson’s first model (cited by Spencer, 2003: 24), (Figure 3, Appendices p. 44), with intervention to promote phonemic awareness by instructing pupils how to recognise the number, sequence and identity of sounds in words. Specific teaching of high-frequency words and phonemic decoding, with guided practice in using new skills guarded against failure. A Learning Support CD-ROM, Word Shark, was used to reinforce and consolidate new words. This provides high-frequency lists and allows re-construction to match specific teaching, develops auditory and visual awareness and facilitates learning in a positive fashion with ‘games’ and rewards.
-
The ENABLE-Plus programme was introduced, as provision, resources and strategies matched our arrangements and needs. Consistency of delivery was maintained as the two specialists liased daily regarding the programme.
-
Phonological Awareness Training was combined with the syntactic and semantic elements of ENABLE-Plus to extend the strategies for reading and spelling.
-
Skill Teach (Figure 4, Appendices p. 45) was introduced into Year 3 classes for a trial period, instead of Literacy Strategy spelling work (which is not compulsory), as an OFSTED survey (1998), expressed concern about mixing analytic and ‘synthetic’ systems and demonstrated resulting success was unpredictable. The resource had been used successfully with Learning Support pupils and was selected because it is based on an analysis of reading skills and, integrates high-frequency words with a structured phonic progression.
To ensure efficiency of delivery I liaised with the Head of Year 3 and worked closely with a fellow specialist in training Learning Support and Classroom Assistants, personally managing their work during Term Three.
Evaluation and suggestions for further work
Of the five papers Spencer’s (2002) research into English spelling stimulated the greatest reflection: it was a particularly compelling paper because it placed clear emphasis on the deficiencies of English as a ‘culpable language’ (1997), rather than attributing problems to within child deficits. Although I had acknowledged this, my teaching had always focused on the problems of individuals.
Consequently I was compelled to re-evaluate my practice. The methods I adopted
differ significantly from the traditional multi-sensory approaches that I had always used. Learning support teaching involves painstaking practice and repetition to enable children to learn individual words. In contrast, I realised that teaching the reversibility of the English code and stimulating phonemic awareness gives children tools to read and spell more independently and thereafter apply these skills. This alternative intervention is no more intensive in terms of time and human resources, as Spencer argued and, proved a more stimulating pedagogy.
ENABLE-Plus was another radical departure from practice, as it dispensed with graded reading schemes. It has only been introduced temporarily as the SMT was resistant to change maintaining that the approach is ‘similar to real books’. I felt that direct instruction of high-frequency words and phonics had clear benefits as it maximised academically engaged time. The non-hierarchical, frequently changed books, giving pupils more independent choice, created noticeable pleasure and sense of progress, liberating children from the restricted vocabularies of graded reading schemes, whose tight structures can convey an impression of slow progress. The approach also developed new professional skills: discussion of specific words, leading to generalisations about decoding methods was a highly effective strategy, which I had never used consistently and could be developed when the school introduces reading activities next term. If ENABLE-Plus were to continue, I would improve the programme by introducing more individual tuition to maintain pace, as slower children needed to be ‘kept up’ and also transfer instruction to the Library to reinforce notions of independence and choice.
The introduction of Skills Teach into class lessons, after initial scepticism, was felt by teachers to contribute to progress as children built on secure knowledge and moved at their own pace, instead of that of the NLS. However, it was difficult to monitor the work of four assistants in six classes to ensure consistency. I should have delegated work here and also allowed more time for initial training, as some assistants were more able to assess mastery levels than others.
Phonological Awareness Training was the least successful aspect of the programme: I felt I needed more input to ensure that work related to the rest of the programme; generating words from rimes lead to confusing ‘nonsense’ words or misspellings, affecting motivation, although observing delivery I was struck by the lack of nurturing feedback. However, momentum was sustained through daily practice, thus, in different circumstances P.A.T. might have been more effective.
My greatest problems arose from dealings with the SMT, whose attitudes were discouraging and unsupportive.
Nonetheless, the gains children made suggested that the project was worthwhile. However, unless the approach is introduced across the school it is impossible to assess how all Learning Support pupils might progress and due to high staff turnover I do not envisage that Senior Management will sanction further training to sustain the programme.
The methodology yielded encouraging results when pupils were retested after a six-week period, as the improved scores reveal accelerated progression in just less than half a term, (Chart 2 and Table 2, Appendices p. 46). Using ‘traditional’ methods some improvement should have been anticipated, but the progress made by certain pupils was marked. However, a longer interval should have been allowed between pre and post testing to give an indication whether or not progress could be maintained, but this was impossible due to the course requirements. Standardised tests (Neale Reading Analysis and Vernon Spelling) will yield quantitative, standardised results in June. The simple data obtained confirmed that pupils made gains, but this should be interpreted with caution, as the improvement cannot be attributed to one particular aspect of the intervention, there was no evidence to show that gains would be sustained, or if a change in teachers would have made an impact.
Qualitative evidence has internal validity as my interpretations of research theories consistently improved conditions identified for the project: decoding developed, children were more motivated, confidence and self-esteem rose accordingly. Fluency and speed increased when familiar texts were read and in class pupils progressed through one stage of reading books, (an accumulation of schemes). Some pupils needed more time than others to internalise and consolidate knowledge and skills, but I believe that the eclectic, focused approach with clear instruction in phonemic decoding, promoting phonemic awareness and teaching high-frequency words provided a sound knowledge base for progress. Children overcame their confusion, began to master the complex code of English and developed self-esteem in parallel, confirming Seifert’s argument that:
‘For students to develop into healthy, adaptive and constructive individuals, it is imperative to foster feelings of competence and control …. If the topic does not make sense, they may not discern the relevance of the topic. Likewise, if the students do not feel capable of understanding the topic, they may not find the work meaningful.’
(Seifert, 2004: 147)
The approach proved effective in terms of time, staffing and budget constraints. The initiative promoted collaboration with Year 3 teachers, some of whom with different frames of reference viewed Learning Support intervention as separate from their teaching; now, as one colleague observed ‘I understand and appreciate your role.’
The research developed further and became the focus for monitoring teaching and learning across the school. This process is not complete, but it has integrated action research into the Monitoring Teaching and Learning, (Appendices p. 47) as part of the Whole School Development Plan and will create a forum for group discussion and self-regulation to enhance the learning community.
Reflection
The course has taught me to research and critically evaluate findings and test theory in practice. I have been empowered to re-evaluate methods and introduce strategies that challenge orthodox learning support approaches. My confidence has developed and I have proved that I am able to question current literacy practice and make significant changes involving colleagues with entrenched attitudes. I believe that through this process I have become more autonomous in my professional judgement.
This was unique, personal research to manage innovation, reflecting Stenhouse’s view of
research with the teacher as the central agent:
‘… progressively increasing his understanding of his work and hence bettering his teaching.’
(Stenhouse, 1989: 223)
The ultimate aim is to improve classroom experience and in this respect research provided a critical examination of my practice and systematic structuring of my work. The processes have given me control of knowledge and enabled me to theorize to achieve self-knowledge, which are fundamental characteristics of the ‘reflective practitioner’.
Given the opportunity to continue the project, I would like to work with the Infant School SENCO to introduce the programme lower down the school, to overcome difficulties at an earlier age; use the modified approach with Year 3 in September 2005 and continue with current pupils transferring to Year 4. Future work on reading, liasing with the Subject Leader, could investigate the findings of the OFSTED Report, (2004), which stressed that effective reading in primary schools is dependent on Management with a clear, positive involvement. In this respect both professional and practitioner research has a place, as Hopkins argued:
‘Neither critical theory nor action research are panaceas … however, their practical applications do provide a rationale and method for teachers who wish to take more control of their … professional lives.’
(Hopkins, 2002: 45)
Total words: 4361
Bibliography
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Appendices
Athens’ Search Results 26
The National Curriculum Requirements for Key Stage 1 Literacy 30
The National Literacy Strategy High-frequency Words for Year 2 31
Figures 1a and 1b, The ENABLE-Plus Programme 32
Figure 2, Phono-graphix 34
Spencer, K. A., (2002). English spelling and its contribution to illiteracy:
word difficulty for common English words. Reading, 36 (1) 16-25 35
Chart 1 and Table 1, Pupils’ Reading and Spelling Scores for High-frequency
Words, March 2005 36
Action Plan to Implement Literacy Project 37
The Rationale of Skill Teach, WordShark 3S and Phonological Awareness
Training 38
Pedagogical Approach 41
Figure 3, Torgenson’s Model of Intervention 44
Figure 4 Skill Teach 45
Chart 2 and Table 2, Pupils’ Reading and Spelling Scores for High-frequency
Words, May 2005 46
Learning Support Department, Monitoring Teaching and Learning Years 3 to 6 47
ATHENS Search Results
1. Initial search and inter-library loan requested:
00219793 British Education Index (BEI)
Motivational-emotional vulnerability and difficulties in learning to read and spell
Poskiparta Elisa
Journal Name: British Journal of Educational Psychology; Vol.73,no.2: Jun 2003
Publication Year(s): 2003
Physical Description: p187-206 ISSN: 00070998
British Library Document Supply Centre Shelfmark: 2307.650000
00218294 British Education Index (BEI)
Differences in learning to spell: relationships between cognitive profiles and learning responses to teaching methods
Brooks, Peter; Everatt, John; Weeks Sally
Journal Name: Educational and Child Psychology; Vol.19,no.4: 2002
Publication Year(s): 2002
Physical Description: p47-62 ISSN: 02671611
British Library Document Supply Centre Shelfmark: 3661.363300
00214015 British Education Index (BEI)
English spelling and its contribution to illiteracy: word difficulty for common English words
Spencer Ken
Journal Name: Reading; Vol.36,no.1: Apr 2002
Publication Year(s): 2002
Physical Description: p16-25 ISSN: 00340472
British Library Document Supply Centre Shelfmark: 7300.800000
Brooks, Peter; Everatt, John; Weeks Sally
Journal Name: Educational and Child Psychology; Vol.19,no.4: 2002
Publication Year(s): 2002
Physical Description: p47-62 ISSN: 02671611
British Library Document Supply Centre Shelfmark: 3661.363300
00197330 British Education Index (BEI)
Predicting word-spelling difficulty in 7- to 11-year-olds
Spencer Ken
Journal Name: Journal of Research in Reading; Vol.22,no.3: Oct 99
Publication Year(s): 1999
Physical Description: p283-292 ISSN: 01410423
British Library Document Supply Centre Shelfmark: 5052.027000
00195886 British Education Index (BEI)
English: the culpable language
Spencer Ken
Journal Name: Curriculum; Vol.20,no.1: 99
Publication Year(s): 1999
Physical Description: p7-12 ISSN: 01438689
British Library Document Supply Centre Shelfmark: 3503.215000
00190611 British Education Index (BEI)
An intervention strategy to enhance spelling performance and social interaction and to decrease inappropriate behaviours of students with mild disabilities and typical peers in an inclusive instructional setting
Sideridis Georgios D.
Journal Name: Research in Education; No.59: May 98
Publication Year(s): 1998
Physical Description: p109-124 ISSN: 00345237
British Library Document Supply Centre Shelfmark: 7738.930000
00185455 British Education Index (BEI)
Assessment of reading and spelling: the importance of differential diagnosis for intervention
Doctor Estelle Ann Lewin
Journal Name: British Journal of Curriculum and Assessment; Vol.7,no.3: Summer 97
Publication Year(s): 1997
Physical Description: p24-26 ISSN: 0960796X
British Library Document Supply Centre Shelfmark: 2307.310000
Developing reading, spelling and phonemic awareness skills in primary school children
Watson, Joyce; Johnston Rhona S.
Journal Name: Reading; Vol.31,no.2: Jul 97
Publication Year(s): 1997
Physical Description: p37-40 ISSN: 00340472
British Library Document Supply Centre Shelfmark: 7300.830000
00177389 British Education Index (BEI)
The devil's in the detail
Corporate Source: Special Children (Periodical)
Journal Name: Special Children; No.91: Mar 96
Publication Year(s): 1996
Physical Description: p7-8 ISSN: 09516875
British Library Document Supply Centre Shelfmark: 8365.799000
00203615 British Education Index (BEI)
The effects of morphological awareness training on the reading and spelling skills of young dyslexics
Elbro, Carsten; Arnbak Elisabeth
Journal Name: Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research; Vol.44,no.3: Sep 2000
Publication Year(s): 2000
Physical Description: p229-251 ISSN: 00313831
British Library Document Supply Centre Shelfmark: 8087.506000
00131634 British Education Index (BEI)
Orthographic and phonetic coding in developmental dyslexia
Rack John P.
Journal Name: Br. J. Psychology.; Vol.76, pt.3 : Aug 85
Publication Year(s): 1985
Physical Description: p325-340 ISSN: 00071269
2. Additional search
00224250 British Education Index (BEI)
A system to boost personal achievement and esteem
Severs Peter
Journal Name: School Science Review; Vol.85,no.311: Dec 2003
Publication Year(s): 2003
Physical Description: p43-48 ISSN: 00366811
00220312 British Education Index (BEI)
Facilitating a positive sense of self in pupils with dyslexia: the role of teachers and peers
Humphrey Neil
Journal Name: Support For Learning; Vol.18,no.3: Aug 2003
Publication Year(s): 2003
Physical Description: p130-136 ISSN: 02682141
00219636 British Education Index (BEI)
Self-esteem as a barrier to learning: literature review and report
James Kathryn
Journal Name: Journal of Access and Credit Studies; Vol.4,no.2: Spring 2003
Publication Year(s): 2003
Physical Description: p122-136 ISSN: 14620367
00212954 British Education Index (BEI)
Teacher and pupil ratings of self-esteem in developmental dyslexia
Humphrey Neil
Journal Name: British Journal of Special Education; Vol.29,no.1: Mar 2002
Publication Year(s): 2002
Physical Description: p29-36 ISSN: 09523383
British Library Document Supply Centre Shelfmark: 2324.850000
00216932 British Education Index (BEI)
Accelerating the progress of failing readers: an evaluation of the ENABLE-Plus programme pilot study
Yeomans, Jane; Bowen Phil
Journal Name: British Journal of Special Education; Vol.29,no.4: Dec 2002
Publication Year(s): 2002
Physical Description: p170-177 ISSN: 09523383
Personal constructs and attribution for academic success and failure in dyslexia
Mullins, Patricia M.; Humphrey Neil
Journal Name: British Journal of Special Education; Vol.29,no.4: Dec 2002
Publication Year(s): 2002
Physical Description: p196-203 ISSN: 09523383
The National Curriculum Requirements for Key Stage 1 Literacy
‘En 2 Reading
1 Pupils should be taught:
Phonemic awareness and phonetic knowledge:
- hear, identify, segment and blend phonemes in words
- sound and name the leers of the alphabet
- link sound and letter patterns
- identify syllables in words
- recognise that the same sounds may have different spellings and that the same spellings may relate to different sounds.
Word recognition and graphic knowable:
- read on sight high frequency words and other familiar words
- recognise words with common spelling patterns
- recognise specific parts of words, including prefixes, suffixes, inflectional endings, plurals.’
‘EN 3 Writing
Spelling strategies:
4. Pupils should be taught to:
- write each letter of the alphabet
- use their knowledge of sound symbol relationships and phonological patterns
- write common letter strings
- spell common words
- spell words with common prefixes and inflectional endings.’
‘Table 1 Phonic targets, Year 1 Term 3’
National Literacy Strategy High-frequency Words for Year 2
about girl or
after good our
again half over
another have people
ball here saw
because home school
been laugh seen
brother little should
call many sister
came may take
can’t more their
could name there
don’t new these
door night three
down old what
first once when
Figure 1a The ENABLE-Plus Programme
Figure 1b The ENABLE-Plus Learning Hierarchy and Strategies
[From Bowen, P. and Yeoman, J., (2002: 171)]
PRINT
Figure 2
PHONO GRAPHIX
INSERT SPENCER
Pupils’ Reading and Spelling Scores
March 2005
Chart 1
Table 1
Action Plan to Implement Literacy Project
1. Aim: to revise Learning Support strategies and approaches to teaching high-frequency words.
2. Responsibility - SENCO:
- to discuss necessary changes and new arrangements with Senior Management;
- to analyse high-frequency words to prioritise teaching;
- to lead and advise the Learning Support Team;
- to work with the School Librarian in selecting books;
- to liase with the Head of Year 3 to ensure close collaboration with class teachers;
- to train Learning Support and Classroom Assistants;
- to oversee the work of Learning Support and Classroom Assistants.
3. Time frame: March to May 2005 (for study purposes)
4. Approach:
a. Gather materials and compare available resources on the basis of:
- learning theory emphasising repetition and cumulative practice;
- code instruction in the context of reading;
- the importance of competence as the basis for motivation.
b. Select reading books for ENABLE-Plus:
- choose Learning Support and Library books for ‘reluctant readers’;
- books to be stimulating, have varied formats, not sequential, not supporting a single strategy or method.
e. Group books to meet pupils’ needs:
- group 1 four lines per page with repeated text, or two or three lines of text per page;
- group 2 three to six lines of text per page with some repetition;
- group 3 five to ten lines of text per page with limited or no repetition;
- group 4 more than eight lines of text per page.
c. Introduce:
-
high-frequency words taught by whole word and grapho phonic approaches supplemented with the WordShark 3S
- ENABLE-Plus in Learning Support three times per week;
-
Skill Teach in class in daily literacy lesson;
-
Phonological Awareness Training (P.A.T) 10 minutes daily during registration, (delivered by Head & SMT).
8. Learning Support Team and Class Assistants trained in approaches and use of resources, (last 3 days of Term Two).
9. Implement plan: 9 April
10. Assess pupils’ progress (high-frequency words): week beginning 7 May
11. Follow up assessment (Neale Reading and Vernon Spelling), 18 June
12. Re-evaluate and modify approaches as necessary
The Rationale of Skill Teach, WordShark 3S and Phonological Awareness Training
Skill Teach
Suitable for:
- pupils with SpLD on an individual basis, or moderate on-going difficulty in small groups of 2 to 4;
- primary pupils;
- whole person approach (Manual, p.11).
Based on simple analysis of mechanics of reading:
- words which can be decoded;
- units of high-frequency words that cannot be decoded;
- words which require an initial phonic approximation, followed by contextual identification;
Format:
- Manual
- photo-copiable worksheets
- tapes
WordShark 3S
Suitable for:
- pupils with SpLD;
- pupils with reading and spelling difficulties;
- primary school pupils.
Based on:
- sound, graphics and text to teach and reinforce reading and spelling;
- phonics, word division, high-frequency words, use of words in context..
Format:
- 36 different games;
- NLS targets for KS 2
- program management to include specific words / patterns / ‘rules’.
Phonological Awareness Training (P.A.T.)
Suitable for:
- children aged seven and upwards;
- pupils with SpLD;
- ‘establishing success’ (p. 4)
Based on:
- natural development of phonological awareness;
- onset and rimes;
- child generating own words;
- flexibility and consolidation.
Format:
- placement sheets;
- photo-copiable worksheets;
- reading lists;
- dictations;
- rime display sheets;
Pedagogical Approach
The predominant features required:
- a hierarchical, structured study of language;
- detailed incremental coverage of phonics;
- structured teaching of blending and segmenting phonemes;
- specific teaching of common words;
- ‘multi-sensory’ methods;
- exposure, feedback and development to the point of mastery;
- motivational factors to promote self-image.
Learning Support lessons: h
High-frequency words were delivered through intense 15-minute structured, focused teaching. The sequence involved:
- instruction: phonemic decoding;
- model: adult demonstration of the spelling;
- lead: pupils demonstrating the skill with adult support (repeating after, repeating with, recording);
- test: pupils demonstrating the skill unaided;
- review: after an elapse of time repetition of the test step
Personal records were kept of words that individuals found difficult; checks were thus incorporated to prevent pupils falling behind and, to implement additional, direct instruction. As pupils progressed they coloured in target sheets adapted from Skill Teach to sustain motivation and enhance esteem. ‘ Games’ from WordShark were used for consolidation as the words accumulated. Sentence dictation was included to actively apply words. The same four words practised in Learning Support sessions were set for homework instead of the usual class spellings, with stickers and praise awarded for successful recall.
ENABLE-Plus in Learning Support sessions included a group reading familiar pages introduced in the previous lesson, followed by a pupil selecting a new book for the session. Reading used: modelling; pupil reading with adult intervention to discuss and generalise effective decoding methods. The strategy provided systematic cueing of appropriate strategies in reading words and text. Reading was followed by spelling / writing activities linked to the text, dictated either by the adult or composed by pupils, according to the skill level of the group.
P.A.T. was delivered in intensive 10 minute, daily sessions linking reading, spelling and writing. Children worked in groups according to their level in the programme. This ensured success, while the inherent flexibility and inbuilt repetition promoted consolidation. Once established children gradually increased their work rate and began to move confidently through the programme.
In class:
Highly structured Skill Teach phonic worksheets were introduced in Year 3 Literacy lessons according to individual levels of mastery on the integral diagnostic test. Thus work progressed according to individual pupils’ strengths, encouraging motivation. Classroom or a Learning Support Assistants carried out performance and periodic maintenance checks, thus acquisition of phonic skills was monitored. Pupils recorded their progress on personal charts and received achievement certificates in assemblies. The emphasis throughout was on success.
In class the traditional ‘look, say, trace, cover, write, check’ method was supplemented by brain imaging, lists and ‘strangeness’ to enhance recall. High-frequency words were placed in different locations according to the number of phonemes, e.g. words with two phonemes were mounted on blue card and placed on windows. (The 48 words were incorporated in a humanities display in the communal area.) In lessons, if children requested a spelling they were instructed to find the word from its initial sound. Pupils were encouraged to devise their own ways of remembering (deliberate mispronunciation was popular). High expectations were communicated to all and achievement and effort were celebrated.
PRINT FIGURE 3 TORGENSON
Figure 4 Skill Teach
After: Piotrowski. J., Reason, R. (2000) The National literacy Strategy and dyslexia: a comparison of teaching methods and materials. Support for Learning. 15 (2), 51-57
Key:
a. Comprehensive model: the materials reflect a comprehensive model of reading and / or spelling development that include comprehension of the text as whole and the anticipation of words and letter sequences.
b. Progression: the materials show a clear progression starting from phonological awareness and moving gradually to more advanced phonic structures
c. Speaking and listening: phonological regularities are reinforced through both speaking and listening.
d. Reading and writing: phonological regularities are reinforced through both reading and writing.
e. Assessing to teach: the materials provide guidance on assessing what is known in order to plan, in appropriately small steps, what should be learnt next.
f. Mastery learning: the materials are based on planned repetition and revision that ensures retention of what has been learnt.
g. Role of learner: explicit guidance on the involvement of children in setting their own targets to influence motivation.
h. Home-school links: clear guidance on how children might be supported at home.
1 = implicit but not explained
2 = included and expected
3 = major emphasis
Pupils’ Reading and Spelling Scores
May 2005
Chart 2
Table 2
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