consider the history of the national curriculum and assess the current position with regard to national strategies. The impact
National Strategies Application and Analysis
The aims of this essay are to consider the history of the national curriculum and assess the current position with regard to national strategies. The impact of the current initiatives on teaching and learning at key stage 3 will be evaluated with emphasis on incorporation into lesson planning. The present study will include primary data obtained from teaching practice at a mixed 11-16 comprehensive school and secondary data from various reference sources.
The History of The National Curriculum
A curriculum of sorts has existed within schools in the UK since the early 20th century but the popularisation of the term and the conceptualisation of ideas did not really begin to take shape until the 1960's. It was an ideal that took root in the UK after spreading from the USA; its basis is to not only to describe what is to be taught but to encompass methods, resources and the wider environment. The exact detail of inclusion within the definition has always been, and still is, hotly debated political terrain (Bourdillon and Storey 2002 : 20).
The evolution of the curriculum has its origins in the Education Act of 1902 that made education more accessible to a larger proportion of the population it was also the beginnings of political controversy regarding the education of the nation. Further reform took place in 1944 a time when a state imposed curriculum was not a desirable notion the 1944 Education Act was a far reaching piece of legislation that provided secondary education for all, allowing teachers and schools to determine the essence of the curriculum. The derivation of a common core curriculum did not take place until the late 1970's following a landmark speech by the Prime Minister of the time James Callaghan. His speech at Ruskin College in 1976 was the ignition for curriculum commonality and the foundation of boundaries to teacher autonomy (Chitty 1996).
The Ruskin speech set the scene for the development of the modern curriculum that we know today. Callaghan's emphasis on, 'the need to ensure greater relevance in education and to prepare future generations for life' (Turner and Di Marco 1998), is something that we are still aspiring to at the present day and is thus still at the heart of shaping today's ever changing curriculum. The introduction of the National Curriculum took place following the Education Act 1988 and proved to be a key turning point in centralising the education system. The curriculum was now firmly subject based with differing status placed upon the various subjects; three 'core' subjects emerged - English, Mathematics and Science, with other subjects categorised as foundation subjects. The core subjects were used as a means to judge school effectiveness and pupil attainment within Standard Assessment Tasks (SATs). This new regulation of content was seen as a means of ensuring entitlement for all and avoiding offering an academic curriculum with higher status to some and a vocational curriculum with lower status to others (Mc Culloch et al 2000) B&S.
This main framework of the curriculum persists but adjustments are continually taking place especially within the area of Key Stage 4. Reviews such as the Dearing Report (1993) highlighted the struggle to fit all subjects into the constraints of the National Curriculum at Key Stage 4. Thus a revision of the curriculum to reduce the content was implemented in 2000. Political thought also appears to be adjusting its aims with the White Paper Schools Achieving Success (DfES 2002) placing greater focus on vocational courses and greater options at Key Stage 4. Suggestions are also gaining ground for more sweeping changes with proposals for new 14-19 curriculum initiatives (DfES 2003). Key reasons for reform in this area have been identified as:
* Only 51% of pupils achieve five GCSE's at grades A*-C by age 16.
* 5% of pupils have achieved no GCSE's at all by age 16.
* In a league table of participation rates for 17 year olds in education, the UK is equal 25th out of 29 OECD countries, ahead of Greece, Mexico and Turkey.
* One in four 16-18 year-olds dropped out of education and training at the end of 2000, significantly above the OECD and European Union averages.
From (MacKay 2003)
The vision for progression is to open up the range of qualifications providing more flexibility and greater focus on the individual. Greater emphasis will be placed on preparing young people for the work place thus there is a greater need for work related learning. Vocational qualifications will play a greater role in this and therefore measures are being put into place to shake off their once ascribed ...
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* One in four 16-18 year-olds dropped out of education and training at the end of 2000, significantly above the OECD and European Union averages.
From (MacKay 2003)
The vision for progression is to open up the range of qualifications providing more flexibility and greater focus on the individual. Greater emphasis will be placed on preparing young people for the work place thus there is a greater need for work related learning. Vocational qualifications will play a greater role in this and therefore measures are being put into place to shake off their once ascribed inferior status (MacKay 2003).
The Science Strategy *
Science is and is set to remain a compulsory subject for all at both Key Stage 3 and 4. The content of the secondary science curriculum is laid out in Programmes of Study (PoS) and progression is assessed at Key Stage 3 by Standard Assessment Tasks (SAT's), resulting in level descriptors, and at Key Stage 4 by GCSE's. The four areas of study within the secondary curriculum are:
* Experimental and investigative science - Sc1
* Life and living processes - Sc2
* Materials and their properties - Sc3
* Physical processes - Sc4
(Turner and DiMarco 1998)
The Programmes of Study are made up of five key scientific ideas: cells, interdependence, particles, forces, and energy drawn from the three scientific disciplines. The original model of the PoS was based on the Task Group on Assessment and Testing (TGAT) report of December 1987 this was to divide content into broad topics, attainment targets, divided down into strands with each strand linked to a 10-point scale of achievement. Many of the strands covered all four key stages leading to a spiral curriculum where some of the topics were introduced and then revisited (Nicholson and Holman 2003). A spiral curriculum although advantageous in the respect that it allows for consolidation and reinforcement can become repetitious to avoid this suggestions have been made to give the curriculum different slants on various topics at the different key stages (Osborne and Collins 2000).
Science at Key Stage 3 was included within the Government's National Strategy in 2002 with the aim of raising standards for pupils in their first three years of secondary education. The focus of the strategy is based around four main principles: setting high expectations and challenging targets; ensuring good transition and progression from Key Stage 2; engaging and motivating pupils and developing professional practice. The strategy also promotes the importance of planning, setting objectives, structuring lessons and assessment of and for learning. Lesson structure for a typical 50/60 minute lesson is suggested to comprise a three part structure, starter, main part and plenary. This will provide the lesson with a tight structure and this should be accompanied by clearly laid out objectives (DfES 0136/2002).
Observations have provided the opportunity to see the three part framework in action and gain some useful ideas for starter and plenary activities. An example of a good starter activity was observed in a lesson at the end of a module on photosynthesis from the national curriculum scheme of work: Unit 9C: Plants and Photosynthesis. It was used to immediately stimulate pupils into thinking about the topic of the lesson and to consolidate knowledge already gained. In groups pupils were given a word on a piece of A4 paper and asked to discuss its relationship to photosynthesis, they were given 5 minutes on this task and then each group was asked to tell the class their findings. This activity provided a good means of consolidating knowledge and encouraging thinking skills. On discussion with the class teacher it was acknowledged that the success of this type of activity can be heavily dependent on the group being taught, as it is difficult to ensure all pupils are on task.
An example of a good active plenary was also observed during the same module of work on photosynthesis. The main part of the lesson had consisted of the last practical in a series looking at the factors needed for photosynthesis to occur, the equation for photosynthesis had previously been discussed. To consolidate this knowledge the plenary activity involved a group of volunteer students having a word from the equation stuck to their backs the students were asked to face the class and were moved so the words of the equation were jumbled. They were asked to turn around for 10 seconds and the class were given this time to work out which order the students needed to be in to correctly complete the equation. The students then turned back to face the class and the process of rearranging proceeded. The students continued to turn and turn back until they were all in the right order. This was a fun and engaging activity to get pupils to apply their knowledge.
The three part lesson framework has had a strong influence on my own teaching practice and has proved a useful tool in structuring a time frame. An example of such usage can be seen in a lesson given to a year 8 group from a module on matter (Appendix 1). It was a single practical lesson with a year 8 high ability group (29 cohorts) and involved making simple thermometers to illustrate expansion in liquids. The lesson comprised a starter activity that involved groups of students modelling particles in solids, liquids and gases. This starter activity was used to reinforce knowledge of how particles behave in the three different states of matter. They were then brought around the front bench to discuss the main activity; questions were asked regarding thermometers and how they work, a demonstration was then given on how to make a basic thermometer. The pupils were given the bulk of the lesson to make their own thermometers, test them out and answer observational questions. A plenary activity was then provided giving pupils the opportunity to utilise knowledge they had gained from the investigation. The plenary involved pupils rearranging jumbled phrases into meaningful sentences to reflect what was happening to the liquid in the thermometer.
In evaluation and reflection on the lesson I found that the three part structure provides a good basis in planning an effective well structured lesson with the starter providing an opportunity to reinforce knowledge before building on that existing knowledge with the main activity. The plenary was then able to ensure learning objectives had been met with a simple activity utilising knowledge gained. An essential factor when using the three part framework is excellent time management and I find that this often arises as an area to work on especially when undertaking practical activities.
Literacy, Numeracy, ICT and Key Skills*
The national literacy strategy was introduced in September 1998 in an effort to raise standards for all primary aged pupils. The strategy's aim was to ensure that all pupils were receiving a daily dedicated literacy hour within which they would have the opportunity to develop skills in oral work, reading, spelling and grammar.
The national numeracy strategy was introduced in September 1999 and like the literacy strategy was aimed at raising standards for all primary pupils. Akin to the literacy strategy it prescribed a daily mathematics lesson for all pupils.
The development of pupil's numeracy and literacy skills are assessed at the end of Key Stage 2 by Standard Assessment Tests. The strategies are hoped to be a means by which all primary school children have access to and develop the same skill and understanding in these core areas, thus providing them with a firm basis on which to progress their knowledge during their secondary education (www.tta.gov.uk).
Where literacy and numeracy strategies have been influential in affecting primary education curriculum 2000 was introduced in September 2000 and provides a range of support at KS3 & KS4 in promotion of skills and careers guidance. In addition, there are Personal, Health and Social Education and Citizenship programmes. Plus new and revised qualifications for post 16 years provision, which include:
* A Vocational and General Certificate of Education (VCE/GCE) Advanced sub-levels.
* The GCE A2 leading to a full GCE A Level.
* The VCE A Levels and A level (double awards).
* The new Key skills qualification.
These are in addition to established national qualifications such as General National Vocational Qualifications (GNVQs), which can be added to vocational GCSEs (www.lsda.org.uk). The International Baccalaureate is also becoming more popular as a post 16 qualification because of the combination of practical and academic skills.
The development of Key Skills in post 16 education was influenced by such statements as the declaration of intent by the Committee of Vice Chancellors and Principals, the Confederation of British Industry and the Council for Industry and Higher Education which stated it was necessary to ensure that, 'students in higher education develop attributes thought useful for success in employment and future life' (CVCP, CBI, CIHE 1996). Reacting to this and pressure from employers to ensure those leaving higher education had the necessary degree of transferable skills the Dearing Report (1997) set out its vision to ensure key skills were a high priority within the 16-19 curriculum. This would be done by creating an individual qualification to assess the skills of all those in post 16 education whatever their course of study (Dunne et al 2000). There are six areas incorporated within key skills: Application of number, Communication, Information technology, Improving own learning and performance, Problem solving and Working with others. The first three categories are high priority and form the focus of assessment with the remainder being placed in the bracket of wider key skills and are of a lower priority.
For Key stages 3 and 4 an approach combining aspects of both the primary literacy and numeracy strategies and the key skills aspect of the post 16 curriculum allows progress to continue from Key stages 1 and 2 and initiates the progression of the key skills necessary for further education or employment.
These initiatives have been observed incorporated into science lessons in many different ways. For example a lesson from a year 9 module on electricity, from the national curriculum scheme of work: Unit 9I: Energy and Electricity, provided a perfect opportunity for the use of the IT software crocodile clips. The lesson was conducted in the IT suite, the class were given a set of problems and were asked to use crocodile clips to create the circuits and solve the problems. The lesson incorporated elements promoted in the framework for the use of ICT in Key Stage 3 science the program is a valuable information resource enhancing individual learning and allowing simulation and modelling. In addition to this key skills were also addressed in the form of using ICT to find and develop information and in problem solving. The addressing of literacy has also been observed at the beginning of a year 7 module on reproduction, the national curriculum scheme of work: Unit 7B: Reproduction. The class were given the basis of a word web and a list of key words and asked to fill in as much of the web as possible. Explanation and discussion followed to ensure everyone knew all the words and their correct meaning.
My own planning has attempted to address and apply aspects of the relevant initiatives. ICT was incorporated into a lesson from the year 9 module Inheritance and Health, the national curriculum scheme of work: Unit 9A: Inheritance and Selection (Appendix 2). A previously reviewed website was used as an information resource and pupils were asked to answer a set of questions and create a document using Word or Publisher to present their findings. While addressing the Key Stage 3 ICT strategy key skills in IT and communication were also covered. The same year 9 module also provided the opportunity to plan a lesson which encompassed the key skills of communication and working with others. The lesson was on the topic of selective breeding and involved pupils working in groups, each group was given a selection of breeds of cattle with descriptions of their differing qualities. They were given the problem of breeding the cattle to create offspring with desired characteristics. The groups were involved in discussions and were then asked to put together a short presentation to be given to the rest of the class.
Numeracy is a strategy easily incorporated into science with many opportunities for carrying out calculations, interpreting results and using graphs. A year 8 module light and sound provided an opportunity to use calculations in a lesson on calculating the speed of sound, the national curriculum scheme of work: Unit 8K: Light and Unit 8L: Sound and Hearing (Appendix 3). Pupils were taken out to the tennis courts to carry out the experiment, two pupils were given the job of banging two wooden blocks together while the remainder of the class were a hundred metres away timing the difference between viewing the blocks banging together and hearing the sound. Results were recorded and when back in the classroom a write up was carried out with a results table being created and calculations made of an average time and a resultant speed.
Conclusion
The National Curriculum has undergone considerable change and development over the past thirty years and is still being altered and adjusted at the present day. Controversy still exists as to the approach education should adopt for those over the age of 14 testing is thought to be heavily based on recall of knowledge encouraging a lack of skill development activities (Hacker and Rowe 1997). For the science curriculum studies are suggesting that a change in focus would be beneficial, altering entitlement towards 'preparation for life in a modern society' (Hollins 2001).
The Key Stage 3 strategy has been viewed as having 'a positive influence on planning and teaching methods' (Ofsted 2002). With teacher concensus also positive believing that it did 'embody higher expectations than their previous curricular formations' (Barnes et al 2002). Expectations for science are high with the framework suggesting that 80% of pupils will achieve level 5 or above in the Key Stage 3 national tests by 2007 (DfES 0136/2002).
References
Bourdillon, H. and Storey, A. (2002) Aspects of Teaching and Learning in Secondary Schools. Routledge
Chitty, C. (1996) 'Organisation and Control of Schooling. Unit 2. Generating a national curriculum', EU208 Exploring Educational Issues, Milton Keynes: Open University
CVCP (Committee of Vice-Chancellors and Principals), CBI (Confederation of British Industry) and CIHE (Council for Industry and Higher Education) (1996) Helping students towards success at work: A declaration of intent, London: CIHE.
Dunne, E. (1995) Personal transferable skills, Final Report, University of Exeter.
DfES (2002) Schools Achieving Success - (White Paper), London: HMSO
Department for Education and Skills. Key Stage 3 National Strategy: Framework for teaching science: years 7, 8 & 9. May 2002. Ref. 0136/2002. 14-22.
Hacker, R.G. and Rowe, M.J. (1997) 'The impact of National Curriculum development on teaching and learning behaviours' in International Journal of Science Education, 19, 997-1004
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MacKay, D. (2003) 'Forthcoming changes to the 14-19 science curriculum' in School Science Review 85(310)
Nicolson, P. and Holman, J. (2003) 'The National Curriculum for science: looking back and forward' in School Science Review 85(311)
Osborne, J. and Collins, S. (2000) 'Pupils' and parents' views of school science curriculum' London: School of Education, King's College London
Office For Standards in Education. 2002. The Key Stage Three Strategy: evaluation of the first year pilot. Document No. HMI 349. Ofsted, Feb. 2002.
Learning and Skills Development Agency. 2003. Curriculum 2000. [online]. www.lsda.org.uk/curriculum2000/overview.asp. p1&2.
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www.tta.org.uk
