The school leaving age was effectively changed and fixed at 11 years in 1983. This was then again raised to 12 years in 1899, 13 years in 1902 and to 14 years in 1918. This remained in force until 1947 when it was raised to 15 years followed by 16 years in 1972. These changes were made as the economy was rapidly developing; therefore people with better education were required in the varied workforce.
The Balfor Education Act 1902 abolished board schools and also created 140 Local Education Authorities (LEAs) which then took over these board schools, technical schools and colleges, secondary (grammar) schools, teacher training colleges, and additionally provided money for the voluntary schools.
As well as raising the school leaving age to 15 years, the Butler Act 1944 made secondary education free for all pupils to ensure that all places were open to competition. The 1944 Act also created two tri-partite systems; vertical and horizontal. The vertical system consisted of primary, secondary, further, and higher education. However, the structure of the horizontal system was much different. This was made up of grammar (academic) school secondary technical (technical) school and secondary modern (general) school. Which category a student would fall under would depend on the results of the 11 plus exam. The system was intended to allocate pupils to the schools best suited to their abilities and aptitudes. Thus, the 11 plus exam was used to determine the future on a child. As a result, pupils in secondary modern schools were labelled as ‘failures’ from an early stage. This would occasionally bring to light a self-fulfilling prophecy. Althusser has argued that:
“Teachers are in effect agents of capitalism who through their classroom work reproduce the exploitative relations of capitalism. They produce pupil ‘types’ who will accordingly receive more or less education and enter the labour force at different points”.
One of the most significant results of the 1944 Act was to educate women and the working class. It gave life to secondary school to girls and the working class, and as a result, a far higher percentage attended higher education after secondary school. This resulted in working class awareness of their disadvantaged social position
The 1944 Act gave the Board of Education greater powers and a bigger budget, whilst re-naming it the Ministry of Education. The Act also proposed raising the school-leaving age to 16, but was not followed through until 1972, and provided for community colleges, offering education for both children and adults. This was, however, only followed through by a few LEAs.
In 1967 the Plowden Report was effected. This 1967 report aimed to implement compensatory education by enquiring into the primary school provision. The idea behind this was to compensate for the poor start that children from poor working class families had in education. This ‘compensatory’ education was provided in the inner cities. The teachers who worked alongside this scheme were given financial incentives and additional facilities to work with.
There was a great expansion of higher education following the Robinson Report in 1963, which led to the Colleges of Advanced Technology and Colleges of Art and Teacher Training being combined into Polytechnics. Also, as a result of the 1963 report, many new universities were given life.
In 1965 the Labour Government intended to implement comprehensive schools. The government sent out LEAs circular 10/65 which outlined the government’s intention to abolish the tri-partite system. This was a response to the outcry to save money. Thus, several LEAs built only one school in order to cater for all children’s needs.
In 1988, following the implementation of the Robbins Report 1963, higher education was extended yet again further by the Conservative Government. Consequently Polytechnics were able to receive independent university status. For example, Thames Polytechnic was then re-named University of Greenwich. Also in 1988, the Educational Reform Act came into force as a result of the failings of the comprehensive schooling system. This act put in place the marketisation of education. League tables were introduced and were used to arrange every school in England and Wales in order of performance; number one being the school with the highest performance rate. Schools of a low performance rate experienced an increased danger of being closed by the LEAs. These League Tables were made available for public viewing. This proved vital in a parent’s decision on what school to send their child.
The new tri-part system was brought in which included grant-maintained schools, city technology colleges and local education schools which were managed by the LEAs.
Most recently however, in 2002 academies, faith schools and beacon schools were introduced. City Academies are publicly-funded independent secondary schools, whereas Beacon Schools are designed to raise standards through the distribution of good practice.
In conclusion, it can be argued that society has made substantial developments to the provision of schooling in an attempt to move away from the typical Marxist view that the education system is unfair and serves to compel people into accepting their ‘roles’ in society through the ‘hidden curriculum’ and has, consequently, moved towards more of an equal approach, whereby giving everyone the chance to work at their future, and thus creating useful individuals that can contribute equally to the effective maintenance of society. With reports such as the Department for Education and Skills plan to raise the school leaving age to 18 in England by 2013, accompanied by such statements by Steve Sinnott stating that the move is “inevitable” and that “we cannot afford to neglect those young people who currently leave school at 16 unprepared for the rigour and demands of life in the 21st century” suggests that this is the case.
Bibliography
-
BBC News, ‘School Leaving Age Set To Be 18’ , BBC News site; http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/education/6254833.stm, January 2007
- Joe Jenkins, Contemporary, Heinemann, May 1991]
- Paul Hopkins, 'Moral Language', The RE revision site; www.paulhopkins.org.uk, March 1999
The Great Exhibition illustrated the UK’s industrial development.
Similar to the Great Exhibition, the Pans Exhibition showed the development of the industries.
As a result of the Balfor Education Act 1902
Following the Butler Act 1944
For example, where children would have the opportunity to gain employment such as a doctor or lawyer.
For example, where children would have the opportunity to gain employment such as an engineer or secretary.
For example, where children would have the opportunity to gain employment such as manual work.
If a child achieved a high grade then they would consequently end up in a top school with better career prospects.
Some children who were labelled as failures would not, as a result, focus on their studies, thus failing.
This is described by Marxists as the Hidden curriculum.
For example, Nottinghamshire community schools.
Children who came from poor working class families would, as a result begin school with a ‘cultural deficit’.
The polytechnics were often seen as ranking below universities in the provision of higher education. This was regarding their lack of degree-awarding powers, the fact that they had less research than the universities, and because the qualifications necessary to gain a place in one were lower than for a university.
Circular 10/65 was a document issued by the Department of Education and Science (DES) requesting LEAs in England and Wales to begin converting their secondary schools to the Comprehensive System
Anglia Polytechnic has since been re-named Anglia Ruskin University.
These are regularly published in newspapers and available over the internet today.
Parents would have been more likely to send their children to the highest achieving schools. Therefore, the lower achieving schools would educate a lower quantity of children resulting in an even greater risk of permanent closure.
These were privately funded.
The ‘hidden curriculum’ teaches submission, deference and respect for the established organisation of work.
Leader of the National Union of Teachers
BBC News, ‘School Leaving Age Set To Be 18’ , BBC News site; http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/education/6254833.stm, January 2007, paragraphs 15/16.