Operant conditioning within an educational setting has various types of influencers which can be used to alter a student’s behaviour. These can be categorised as intrinsic and extrinsic factors. In addition, extrinsic factors can be divided into social or materialistic causes. Public praise and approval in the classroom, for example; ticks, gold stars, stickers, are all extrinsic reinforcers designed to modify a student’s behaviour in a positive way. If the praise was administered in private then the praise is labelled as intrinsic. Contrasting to classical conditioning, punishment and exclusion can be employed to modify a student’s behaviour; withdrawing rewards and imposing punishments such as reprimand and exclusions are all negative reinforcers.
However, a criticism to operant conditioning is that experiments were carried out on non-human animals; therefore explanations for their behaviour may not be appropriate for more complex human behaviour. Also, it does not consider cognitive development which makes the theory deterministic.
Behaviour can be shaped; an example of this is language learning. Hill (2003) states, the behaviourist Skinner argued that human language is erudite through operant-conditioning principles, as parents selectively reinforce and shape their child’s babbling, which are in turn shaped into proper words, phrases and sentences.
Another behaviourist factor is the social learning theory. Cardwell and Flanagan (2009) assert the principle of this theory, is that people can learn through observing the behaviour of models, mentally rehearsing the behaviours and then later imitating them in similar situations. The most notable research carried out on this theory was by Bandura in 1961. Cardwell and Flanagan (2009) maintain Bandura’s study was centred on children aged between 3 and 5. Half were exposed to adults acting aggressively towards a Bobo doll. When the children came into contact with the doll they repeated the aggression they had seen earlier. The other half who seen adults not showing any aggression; showed no aggression towards the doll. Hill (2003) adds, Bandura and Walters suggest that behaviour is not only learnt from the environment by direct reinforcement, but through the process of modelling. Important sources of modelling are the family, peer groups and the media. Children see others as role models they imitate and copy, children will copy because they will get a reward or they will get punished.
Social learning theory covers a wider range of explanations than classical and operant conditioning. Cardwell and Flanagan (2009) confirm social learning theory includes effects of direct and indirect reinforcement and the importance of cognitive factors. Conversely, social learning theory is not a complete explanation of behaviour, Bandura acknowledged other factors such as genetic influences. Also, being sanctioned can actually increase poor behaviour. Bandura’s research using the Bobo doll suggests observational learning in the classroom can occur in several ways, for example, demonstrating a difficult task to a learner first to procure similar behaviour from the pupil. Gadsdon et al (2005) state, seeing a peer carry out a task before hand consequently gives the learner the confidence to try it themselves, especially if it received praise from the teacher. However, Gadsdon et al (2005:20) argue, “not all reinforcers are administered by the teacher. Peers themselves have an effect on how the learner behaves”. Despite being told off by the teacher, if the learner gains approval from peers, then others may choose to misbehave to gain the same social reward.
Fontana, (1995 cited in Gadsdon et al 2005) laid out a number of practical implications to offer the best educational practise for teachers. Some examples which show definite links to the three theories of behaviourism are; to make lessons interesting and relevant, be consistent and fair, don’t be over familiar and convey confidence and good organisational skills.
Cognitive development is the study of how mental activities develop. The cognitive developmental approach focuses on how thinking changes in age-related stages. Flanagan (2001) affirms the main essences of Piaget’s theory are as follows; there are qualitative differences between child and adult thinking, biological approach and language is the outcome of a generalised cognitive ability. Alternative cognitive structures increase with age: schemas and operations. Invariant cognitive structures are assimilation and accommodation. The development is ‘driven’ by disequilibrium. Thus, learners go through different stages of development.
The four main stages in cognitive development are; the sensorimotor stage aged birth to 2 years, Cardwell and Flanagan (2009) tell us that Piaget investigated children’s lack of object performance by hiding an object under a cover. He found that at 0 to 5 months an object will not be searched for. At this stage they are ego-centric and object-permanence. However, Bower and Wishart, (1972 cited in Cardwell and Flanagan 2009) argue with Piaget’s theory. They offered an object to babies aged between 1 and 4 months and as the child was about to reach for the object, they turned off the lights. When observed by infra-red cameras, the babies were seen continuing to reach for the object. The second stage is the pre-operational stage, aged 2 to 7 years, Piaget and Inhelder (1956 cited in Cardwell and Flanagan 2009) carried out their ‘three-mountain’ experiment. Four year olds were shown a mountain scene and were tested to see if they could correctly describe it from different views; they failed and tended to use their own views. On the other hand, Hughes demonstrated that 3.5 – 5 year olds could hide a doll from two policemen dolls successfully, 90% of the time. The third stage is concrete operational stage, aged 7 to 11 years, Cardwell and Flanagan (2009) confirm Piaget believed only a child of the above age could recognise that liquid contained in a short wide beaker could be the same amount as in a tall thin beaker. In contrast McGarrigle and Donaldson, (1974 cited in Cardwell and Flanagan 2009) state that children between 4 and 6 could conserve number transformation. When two rows of counters were put in front of them and a naughty teddy disarranged one row, they could still see that the rows had the same amount of counters. The fourth stage is formal operational stage, 11 onwards, according to Cardwell and Flanagan (2009) Piaget carried out an experiment where children were given a string and a set of weights and asked to determine the swing. The task could be carried out systematically. Gladwin (1970, cited in Cardwell and Flanagan 2009) has questioned the suitability of Piaget’s experiments for testing non-western cognitive development. Piaget’s theory only applies to western people.
A lot of educational practice owes itself to the theory of Piaget, and latter day psychologists have taken his theory, used it as a springboard and refined it. Though there are two areas of criticism with Piaget’s stages, theoretical and methodological. We find children develop earlier than what Piaget first thought, his concepts are vague and stages overlap and he neglects individual indifference, “Piaget’s evidence often lacked scientific rigour” (Flanagan 2001:85). Also, the questions asked were difficult to relate to and they gave the answer they thought the experimenter wanted. Piaget seen the role of the adult as not prominent in learning, instead is the provider of resources, “Piaget’s theory suggest a child-centred approach to education, in which children can learn for themselves through their own experience” (Braid et al 2009:54). Piaget believed a teacher’s role is to facilitate learning, through loose frameworks, being open-minded, flexible and empathetic. This allows the learner to be empowered, participate and be a decision maker; this can be achieved through group work, discovery learning and practical work. Although it depends on what is to be learned, it may not be possible to learn in a cognitive way.
A number of cognitive developmental theorists believe that Piaget neglected the importance of society in shaping changes in mental abilities and understanding. Vygotsky and Bruner in particular, have outlined theories on the vital role played by socially provided language and education in advancing cognitive development. Braid et al (2009) state, Vygotsky’s theory is a teacher-guided method and other people are needed to stimulate cognitive development. Both Bruner and Vygotsky agree scaffolding is an important concept where other people assist a child’s cognitive development. For scaffolding to work it needs to take place within the child’s zone of proximal development. However, Stigler and Perry, (1990 cited in Cardwell and Flanagan 2009) found collaborative learning was not as effective in an individualistic society and experimental groups often received peer tutoring and normal lessons, these extra lessons may have lead to increased success.
Bruner agreed with Piaget that active interaction with the world could increase a child’s underlying cognitive capacity to understand the world in more complex ways. But unlike Piaget, who thought language was an insignificant tool, “Bruner suggested that language is symbolic/logical/operational thought – the two are inseparable” (Hill 2003:69). Bruner believed language train could speed up cognitive development, thus putting more emphasis on the significance of education from others. Bruner stressed education and social interaction as major influences upon cognitive development (Hill 2003).
Both Bruner and Vygotsky argued with Piaget’s firm belief of readiness and disputed that teachers should actively intervene to help a child in their understanding. The teacher provides the tools required for the child to develop cognitively by providing structure, direction, guidance and support, not just the facts. The following concepts are important in education, according to the theories of both Bruner and Vygotsky: the spiral curriculum, scaffolding and the zone of proximal development.
In conclusion, this paper shows that there is a place for both theories in an educational setting which needs to meet the needs of the learner by having a variety of methods, as there are different learners who require different learning styles. Along with the behaviourist and cognitive theories, there is also a place for the humanist theory which considers the learners feelings. I feel that cognitive development is important as it empowers the learner and the facilitator brings about social cohesion. However, there is a place for the behaviourist theory because learners need reinforcers, they need support and guidance and importantly structure which allows the learners to progress.
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