Education in Britain Since WWII
Education in Britain Since WWII
EDUCATION in Britain as changed greatly since World War II, mainly due to
the 1944 Education Act, which made secondary education free and compulsory
until the age of 15 years. The views taken of education and its importance
in national, economic and political terms have varied a great deal since
then with each new government: there have been many good intentions but too
few initiatives taken to achieve the ideal system. Unfortunately this means
that, unless you are white, male, middle class and non-handicapped, the
institution of the school may not be very helpful to your development, and
your days at school may be remembered as a time of prejudice, frustration
and lost opportunities.
The immediate post-war period in Britain constituted a new way of thinking
about public and private life. There were many promises heralding a better
life for everyone, including the provision of free, compulsory secondary
education: public education came to be seen as a 'bastion of national
recovery' (T.E.S., Gosden, 1983). Pupils were regarded as having different
types of skills, and comprehensivisation was not yet a goal; instead three
types of school were suggested: grammar, technical and secondary modern
(Finch, 1984), with grammar schools continuing to be seen as superior and
biased towards middle-class boys. The 1959 Crowther Report recommended
raising the school leaving age to 16 years, the introduction of
comprehensive school and a new exam below GCE level; however, these moves
towards equal opportunities were not completed until the 1970s. Similarly,
the 1983 Newsom Report argued that pupils of below average ability should
receive a greater share of resources, and recommended improved teacher
training. These two reports suggested that not only had the system failed to
achieve equal opportunities, but that it did not genuinely want to do so.
From the 1960s onwards, education was seen more and more in the context of
economics (Dale, 1989); an instrument of national interest rather than
personal fulfilment. It was during this period that the question of racial
and ethnic minority groups entered the debate for the first time, due to
increasing immigration. However, it was taken for granted that these
children needed to become like the white population as quickly as possible,
and so little genuine progress was made (Finch, 1984). Despite the lack of
enthusiasm from Conservative Governments, comprehensivisation accelerated in
the 1970s, so that by 1974, 62% of secondary pupils were in comprehensive
schools. Mrs.Thatcher, as, Education Secretary, did little to slow down the
erosion of education as an ...
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and ethnic minority groups entered the debate for the first time, due to
increasing immigration. However, it was taken for granted that these
children needed to become like the white population as quickly as possible,
and so little genuine progress was made (Finch, 1984). Despite the lack of
enthusiasm from Conservative Governments, comprehensivisation accelerated in
the 1970s, so that by 1974, 62% of secondary pupils were in comprehensive
schools. Mrs.Thatcher, as, Education Secretary, did little to slow down the
erosion of education as an instrument of social improvement; her first
action was to remove free school milk for children over seven and her ideas
indicated a departure from the principles of 1944: a strong emphasis on
standards, and a fear of the power of teachers.
Education became more and more under central (and parental) control in the
980s; the 1980 Education Act made it no longer the duty of LEAs to provide
free school meals, and introduced parental scrutiny and choice. The second
half the 1980s saw a restructuring, and the unashamed acknowledgement that
the market was the new cornerstone of education (Dale, 1989). Key aims were
now to keep output constant and affordable, to remove LEAs as a source of
education policy making, and to replace effectiveness with efficiency.
Parents became consumers, and pupils the viable product to be produced and
then exploited in the name of national interest. The 1988 Education Act is a
set of 'compromises and interventions' (Ball, 1990): it sets out the
National Curriculum (fine in principle, but unfair in practice), more power
to school governers, and the possibility of 'opting out' of LEA control by
individual schools. Despite the good intentions of the 1940s, and the many
worthwhile recommendations made in the (largely ignored) reports, education
in the 1990s is still not a system of equal opportunities concerned with
personal fulfilment - the pupil is seen as an undifferentiated asset to the
economy; or if not an asset, then the child is to be virtually excluded from
the system in order not to damage the cogs of the educational machine.
In an ideal situation, a young person will learn many and varied things
through school, which will aid his/her development so that his/her full
potential may be achieved. By the time a young person leaves school, at
whatever stage suits his/her abilities and aspirations, he/she should be
self-confident, satisfied and fulfilled. The child should have a store of
knowledge, life-skills, the motivation for further development, and exam
success which truly reflects his/her capabilities. Whilst at school, the
pupil should have had the opportunity to form friendships with peers, and
relationships with staff which provide a positive image of the world and the
people in it, as well as being introduced to new ideas and activities.
However, this is very much an ideal; for a great many young people, this
description of school life would be totally alien to their experience, due
to the prejudice inherent in the institution.
These negative experiences of school tend to be suffered by pupils from
minority groups. Particularly hard hit are pupils from West Indian and other
black backgrounds, for whom the evidence of under-achievement is prolific;
see the UEA studies of 1966 and 1968 (Eggleston, Dunn and Aryali, 1986).
Black children tend to be perceived by teachers not as individuals with
differing abilities, but as an homogeneous group of automatically low
ability, and as undisciplined troublemakers. Unfortunately, this becomes a
self-fulfilling prophecy, as pupils live up to the expectations of the
teachers. The Rampton Report (1981) found significant underachievement in
West Indians; similar figures were found by the Swann Report (1985), which
testified to the existence of racism and prejudice in schools. Of course,
such pre-assessment affect exam entries: 25% of Affro-Carribean boys were
entered for 'O' levels, compared with 53.4% of white boys (Eggleston et al,
986) - this is despite findings of equal, or superior intelligence: Bagley
(1975) found children of middle-class African origin performed better on a
Stanford Binet IQ test than similar white children. If a black pupil is
female or has special needs, his/her chances of succeeding or even slimmer.
It is not only girls of ethnic minorities who are prevented from achieving
their full potential - so too are middle class, white girls in 'good'
schools. Even today, the dominant, albeit unconscious, ideology is to
regulate cultural norms of gender behaviour (Walker and Barton, 1983); these
norms are carried into school by both staff and pupils. Girls are not
expected to do as well, are not brought up to be assertive, and so tend to
underachieve, and blame themselves for it (Light and Dwek, 1987). Teachers
praise different qualities in boys and girls - girls are rewarded for being
'obedient, tidy and conscientious' rather than 'lively, independent and
energetic' (Arnot, 1981). Until very recently, girls' choices in the
curriculum were limited, either explicitly or implicitly, and they were
encouraged not to choose scientific or technical subjects: Deem (1978)
states that girls' exam successes cluster around arts subjects, which are of
limited value for entry into jobs, and lead to different routes in further
education. Exams themselves and other measures of achievement are biased
against girls: for example, multiple choice tests are much more suited to
'male' logic than 'female' verbal abilities. Problems such as these make it
important that steps are taken to change prejudiced expectations and the
ways in which pupils are assessed; this would include educating teachers to
understand their biases, and helping girls to alter their expectations so
that they can achieve what is really within their interests and
capabilities.
Another area in which young people are not given the chance to fully develop
their potential is that of Special Educational Needs (SEN), defined by the
988 Education Act as a 'learning difficulty which calls for special
educational provision to be made'. The definition obviously requires some
comparison with a 'norm', although this norm is not specified and different
education authorities have different averages. Although the move now is away
from labelling, since the Warnock Report (1983) many SEN pupils are still
educated in separate units or in special schools, which can cause isolation
and become a self-fulfilling prophecy (Lewis and Vuillamy, 1981).
Unfortunately, it is implicit in current attitudes that problems are
psychological rather than social, and pupils are rated in categories such as
'expressive language' and 'current intellectual functioning' - which can
sometimes say more about teacher attitudes than they do about the pupils.
Barton and Tomlinson (1981) ask, 'at which point does caring become
controlling?'.
The Educational Psychologist (EP) who statements a pupil as SEN has a great
effect on the life of that child and his/her family; many EPs still believe
in intelligence tests, which have been shown to be unfair. There is, as yet,
only provision in the National Curriculum for children with special needs to
be 'disapplied' - will they simply be classified as failures, or will
schools refuse to take them as they will lower the school's average
examination marks? Local financial management (1988 Reform Act) means that
many authorities will not have the money to spend on Eps, so many children
with such needs will go undetected and unprovided for. In order for special
needs pupils to develop fully, it will be necessary to improve professional
training, and alter perceptions of SEN children, so that their abilities,
rather than their disabilities, form the basis of their education.
The function of British schooling has evidently changed quite considerably
since 1945, and in many ways this has been an improvement for the majority
of pupils. However, there is a significant group covering ethnic minorities,
girls and SEN pupils who have largely missed out so far. If Britain is to
make the most of its resources, it is essential that attitudes change so
that the potential which is presently ignored, may be tapped and fulfilled.
