Many nurseries and primary schools use Piaget’s theory in classrooms today and this can be clearly seen in the stages of development. In the pre-operational stage the use of concrete objects and pictures can help a child to understand the lesson. By using actions together with words can help keep instructions to minimum therefore keeping the child stimulated. Working with other children will help them to co-operate with each other as well understand about conversation which is a two way process. This process is required for the next stage of development. Also encouraging the manipulation of physical objects aids the child to understand concepts better (Richmond 1970, p.102). In the concrete operational stage the use of concrete objects and pictures still continue in a more complex way like using a timeline for a history lesson or three dimensional shapes in a maths lesson. The development of numbers and language continue therefore number and word games are vital to expand that development. Also creative activities play a vital role as children can test and explore their ideas. It will also enable them to question thoughts. Children can also manipulate objects relating to class and understanding their relations (Richmond 1970, p.104). Finally in the formal operations stage, the students are not just taught the facts but to explore and discuss complex concepts leading to problem-solving skills. For example looking into events that have taken place and their results and studying it over a period of time (Richmond 1970, p.108).
In the 1900’s Piaget’s theories was greatly influenced by making education more a child-centred approach through schools like Summerhill (1921) and the publication of the Plowden Report (1967). Summerhill School is an independent boarding school established in 1921 by A.S.Neill. The school has a child-centred approach therefore the school fits around the child. Children can choose the lessons they want to learn and have the freedom to what they want as long it does not harm anyone. The School is run by ‘democratic community’ which means that the running of the school is carried out by school meetings in which students or teachers can participate (Summerhill School, 2004). This fits very much in with Piaget’s theory, as he stated that children should have the freedom to explore and should not conform to the adult’s way. The Plowden Report was established in 1967. Sir Edward Boyle, the prime minister at that period had ordered for a review of primary education. The Plowden Report had encouraged a teacher directed curriculum and implied a child centred approach as the report states in Chapter two:
‘At the heart of the educational process lies the child.’
This very much reflects to Piaget’s theory. Chapter two of the report supports around Piaget’s theory, it looks into Piaget’s stages of cognitive development. The report states that the child does not skip stages for example the child just not read, the child has to go through the process of learning the letters, sounds and then it builds onto reading. Also the report emphasizes on the ‘readiness’ of a child. Teaching a child who has no interest is pointless therefore the outcome is unsuccessful. The report suggests that it might be a better idea to allow the child to choose their interests of learning guided by the teacher to be carried out within the correct environment this very much relates to Piaget’s belief that children are ‘natural scientists’, they are born to explore and learn new concepts. The report also looks into the concept of maturation and highlights about social interaction is important which Piaget had stated as the two out of four causes of cognitive development (Plowden Report 1967, p.7). Therefore it is evidently clear that the Plowden report was heavily influenced by Piaget's theory and stated that his work has some very valuable implications for educational institutions. The Plowden Report based on Piaget’s theory have been criticised by educationists like Halsey & Sylva (1987) stated:
‘Plowden's reliance on Piaget's theory and its insistence that discovery learning is always best haven't stood up well to subsequent research’
Halsey and Sylva (1987) also states that regarding the Plowden report been based on Piaget’s theory that over the last ten years or so that Piaget’s perspective of cognitive development seem to be less acknowledged by others.
Since the Plowden Report a new review of primary education named the ‘Cambridge Primary Review’ had started in 2006 and completed in October 2009. The review was led by Sir Robin Alexander. The main purpose of the review was to look at primary education on a whole covering from the purpose of primary education, curriculum, learning environment to what are the needs of the children in the coming years. The review moves away from Piaget’s theory of primary education, in fact the review challenges his work. Chapter seven ‘Children’s development and learning’ looks at how Plowden’s report has changed on children’s development and learning. Goswami and Bryant (2010) cited in Alexander (2010) argues that children and infants think the same as adults unlike Piaget’s theory states the opposite. Also the review states that an important factor towards children’s development and learning is ‘social interaction’ where as though the Plowden’s report gives more importance to the physical manipulation of objects which relates to Piaget's concrete operations stage. The Plowden report had declined Skinner’s behaviourist theory and instead worked around Piaget’s constructivist theory. Goswami and Bryant (2010) cited in Alexander (2010) from their findings state that the beginning of cognitive development from the Sensori-motor stage and is increased to representations of symbols where as though Piaget’s theory states that symbolic representation is replaced. The Plowden report which was based upon Piaget’s stage theory as mentioned above stated that there is no point teaching a child when the child is not ready to learn and this is been challenged. The review looks up to Vygotsky’s concept of zone of proximal development (ZPD) and social interaction is essential within this concept (Alexander 2010, p.90-94). Looking at the two publications from the Plowden Report which was greatly influenced by Piaget’s stage theory to the Cambridge Primary Review which relates more to Vygotsky’s theory, it is clearly evident that education is somewhat moving away from Piaget’s theory. Educational programmes have been developed using Piaget’s theory and one of these is the ‘Early Years Foundation Stage’. The key points are based round Piaget’s theory like play is vital, it is teacher-directed as well as the child should learn according to their own level. Also there are six key areas which link in with Piaget’s theory. For example one of the six key areas is personal, social and emotional development which looks at peer interaction, new concepts, response to relevant experiences and active learning (DCSF, 2008).
Even though Piaget’s work has had a great impact it has also had many criticisms as well. Areas of Piaget’s work that have been criticised are age, questions used, test design, and practice (Oakley 2000, p.33). It is thought that the age ranges for each stage is not correct. Sutherland (1982) found that only half the group showed signs of formal operations with in the correct age range of that stage. The questions used for Piaget’s tests had thought not to be appropriate and this was researched by Donaldson (1978) cited in Oakley ( 2000, p.34). The tests that were used for Piaget’s experiments were not portrayed in the right manner. Bell et al, (1975) cited in Oakley (2000, p.34) carried out the same test but presented it in a slightly different way and children who were younger were able to complete the test. Danner and Day (1977) cited in Oakley (2000, p.35) found that with practice only the older children in the formal operations stage showed a vast improvement on their problem-solving skills. Therefore the concept of maturation does have an effect. Piaget’s work has been challenged by many but it has had great implications to education.
Piaget’s theory has had a great influence on education and contributes to education in a many ways. These ways are the role of the teacher, readiness, active learning, learning from mistakes, peer interaction, the use of real materials and new concepts. Before Piaget’s theory came into place the role of the teacher was one that where the teacher just passed the knowledge to the child. Piaget believed in a child centred learning where the teaching is directed towards the child. Piaget thought that learning should be controlled by the teacher and the child should have no say about their learning. Piaget also felt that the teacher should instigate and decide the activities. According to Slavin (1994) cited in Oakley (2000) the role of the teacher is to establish an environment where the child will be encouraged to ask questions, explore and learn. Piaget suggested that children need to be cognitively ready to learn otherwise it is pointless trying to teach them. It is of no use giving a child a task to carry out when it is away from their level of cognitive development. Hence teachers have to observe and understand the child’s readiness so that they can decide on a task for the child otherwise the opposite can relate to failure and de-motivation (Slavin 1994 cited in Oakley 2000, p.32-34). Piaget felt children did not just take in information he felt that good learning required actively participating. Therefore this will lead the child to a better understanding of the information. For example telling a child that water becomes ice when frozen, this might be difficult to understand but if the child carries out an experiment of filling an ice tray with water then placing it in the freezer and then seeing the outcome. Hence, the child actively participating it will give them a clearer picture. For Piaget education was not just about a one way process where the teacher just gave the child the knowledge but it was about the child learning through a hands on experience (Slavin 1994 cited in Oakley 2000, p.32-34). According to Piaget the child is a ‘natural scientist and explorer’. Therefore the child requires the correct environment in order to use these innate skills (Bee and Boyd, 2000, p.149). Further studies on active learning have been carried out by Holton, Ahmed, Williams and Hill (2001) and Sutherland (1999). Holton et a l (2001) learning through play gave a better understanding especially in areas like maths. Therefore active learning plays a vital role in understanding core subjects. Sutherland (1999) emphasised that physical manipulation of objects should be incorporated in children’s learning until the last stage of Piaget’s stage of cognitive development. Furthermore Sutherland (1999) stated that even at university level students require active learning.Piaget suggested that wrong answers are just important as correct answers because from this teachers can understand the child’s way of thinking and it could be used to help the child understand basic rules (Slavin 1994 cited in Oakley 2000). Therefore children can learn from their mistakes. Piaget felt that social interaction especially with other children of the same age group played a major factor to learning. Through this interaction the child’s ideas will build up and the child will start to question. Also the child will understand that this type of interaction is a two way process and see other’s have a point of view as well (Birch, 1998 cited in Oakley 2000). Between the stages one to three of Piaget’s theory the use of real materials aids the child to solve the problem and give a better understanding. For example to carry out simple additions with the use of counters (Birch,1998 cited in Oakley 2000). New thoughts, ideas and knowledge is required by children so that it can be connected to old knowledge therefore the process of assimilation and accommodation can take place with the new information (Birch, 1998 cited in Oakley 2000). Piaget’s theory can be applied to eleven plus tests as it is the age where formal operations begin (Bartlett & Burton 2007, p.114).
In summary Piaget’s main interest was in the way in children think and how they learn. Piaget believed in the constructivist way of learning. Through a series of experiments he was able to conclude the findings into a stage theory. Piaget’s stage consisted of four stages sensori-motor stage (birth to two years), pre-operational stage (two to seven years), concrete operational stage (seven to eleven years) and formal operational stage (eleven plus). Piaget has stated that education is there to help children learn and by giving them this opportunity it helps them to create their own perspective (Piaget, 1969 cited in Woolfolk, Hughes & Walkup, 2007). Piaget’s theory has had a great impact on education and played a major part towards educational theories and practices. Also Piaget’s theory has great influence on publications like the Plowden Report (1967), Early Years Foundation stage as well as the Cambridge Primary Review (2010). It is clearly evident despite criticisms Piaget’s stage theory is still applied educational settings especially in the Early Years and Primary Schools even today. Piaget has given a stepping stone in to an understanding towards cognitive development which still being built upon.
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