Margaret McMillan and Susan Isaacs were early play pioneers who recognised the importance and value of play for children’s development. In particular, Susan Isaacs was so convinced of the value of play that she claimed “that play indeed is the child’s work, and the means by which he or she develops.” (Isaacs, 1929)
The Government is aware of how important and significant it is for children to have access to suitable and safe play opportunities and experiences, both indoors and outdoors and have included plans to create as many opportunities for this as possible within its document, The Children’s Plan.
The Government recognises play as “important for children’s development, build social and emotional resilience, develop social skills, strengthen friendships, help children learn how to deal with risks – and of course because children enjoy it.” (Every Child Matters, The Children’s Plan, pg 30 para.1.46)
1.4 The Importance of language
As humans, we communicate in many different ways with each other, using facial expressions, sounds, gestures or even whole body movements, however, the most common form of communication is the spoken language.
The behaviourist theorist, Burrhus Skinner, put forward his theory that all language was learned through a process of negative and positive reinforcements.
He proposed that “young children learn to speak because their parents systematically reward correct versions of the language and do not reward mistakes.” (Lindon, J. 2007, pg 139)
Alternatively, Noam Chomsky, a nativist, argued that children are born with a language acquisition device (LAD) describing it as a built in mechanism which helped them recognise and speak language. Chomsky believed that children simply needed to hear language to begin to develop it, proposing “language is not learned, but emerges as part of the process of maturation: the unfolding of characteristics programmed by a genetic code.” (Lindon J. 2007, pg. 141)
Language is a very powerful tool and is at the centre of everything we do, underpinning how we express our needs, classify and assimilate information and how we communicate with one another. Young children’s language and vocabulary skills, can be extended and enriched through opportunities such as story telling, speaking and listening and role play with both adults and children. The language observation in the Appendices confirms this as Child E is keen to explore another book, which confirms Bruner’s theory “that development could be accelerated when adults took a more active role in children’s learning.” (Lindon, J, 1998, pg 70)
According to Vygotsky (1978), “ language is central to the play and learning process. It is a psychological tool for thinking and learning for children at an early stage of language development or those with language delay.” (Godwin & Perkins, 2002. P109)
Children use language to develop social relationships, extending their language and communication skills as they talk and describe things around them, enabling them to use more complex sentence structures and build up a comprehensive vocabulary.
According to Bee (1992). “Through play, children develop new concepts and with each concept there is a set of associated descriptive words. As children learn new words they incorporate these in to their play and the play becomes more complex”. (Garvey, C. 1991, p 62)
1.5 External and environmental factors
In addition to the role of parents and available play opportunities, there are the external and environmental factors which affect child development and learning and the author of this report is of the opinion that the most influential environmental factor is that of the media. Whether this is in the form of radio, television, newspapers, music or the internet, the impact on children is just as powerful, with television being a key influencing factor in how children interpret information, develop and learn from this.
According to Bandura’s theory of social learning, MacLoed-Brudenell, (2004, pg. 123) “children learn not only from direct reinforcement, but also from observing and imitating the behaviour of significant adults.” and this can be directly related to what is seen on the television or from what children witness around them in their home environment or within their peer groups.
Bandura studied children who witnessed adult aggression and found that subsequently, those who witnessed this aggression were much more likely to behave aggressively themselves. According to Bandura, children “seeing adults behave aggressively seems to sanction the expression of the aggressive feelings they already have, taking the adult as their role model and therefore copying the witnessed behaviour.” (Fontana, D. 1988, pg. 282)
This is an important point to bear in mind when considering the influence of television and the media generally upon children’s social and emotional development. The media has the capacity to influence a child’s development, stimulate curiosity,
increase knowledge, extend vocabulary and broaden a child’s experiences of the wider world.
It is not surprising then, that television watched habitually, indiscriminately and without guidance from adults, affects how children view themselves, their world and other people around them. All forms of media are part of our modern day lives, but without moderation, too much exposure could have potential hazards for children’s language development, manipulative play opportunities, attention span and self esteem, whilst also depriving a child of the social interactions necessary for promoting and encouraging healthy cognitive development.
There are many external and environmental influences on child development and learning, but the learning theory put forward by the behaviourist Burrhus Skinner, recognises the importance and significance of using positive and negative reinforcements to achieve a desired learning outcome or behaviour modification.
An example of how this can be applied to cognitive learning can be seen in Observation 5, where the use of positive praise and encouragement aswell as a reward encourages the desired outcome. According to Skinner, his theory “recognises the importance of rewarding or using positive reinforcement when the desired behaviour occurs, in order to increase the chance of it being repeated.” (MacLoed-Brudenell, 2004, pg.123)
1.6 Government Initiatives to support child development and learning
Many studies into the benefits of breastfeeding and the impact this has on child development have been carried out, so to support these findings and raise further awareness, the Government promotes the National Breastfeeding Awareness Week. It has published a guidance leaflet “Breastfeeding – what could be more natural?” which identifies the benefits of breastfeeding, for both the mother and the baby. This leaflet can be obtained from .
Research also indicates that babies born to mothers who smoke during pregnancy are at a higher risk of measurable deficiencies in physical growth, learning difficulties, birth defects and chronic difficulties. The Government, again, recognises this link and in March 1999, introduced a new initiative, a national helpline for pregnant women smokers wishing to quit. This is the introduction of the first ever national NHS smoking cessation programme, with an investment of up to £60 million over the next three years. This government initiative will lead to health benefits for women themselves and their unborn children, whilst also reducing infant mortality.
(www.dh.gov.uk/en/Publicationsandstatistics/Pressreleases/DH_4025340)
In addition to this, Sure Start is the Government’s programme to deliver the best start in life for every child by bringing together early education, childcare, health and family support services for families with children under 5 years old.
It is the cornerstone of the Government’s drive to tackle child poverty and social exclusion working with parents-to-be, parents/carers and children to promote the physical, intellectual and social development of babies and young children so that they can flourish at home and when they get to school. To provide this support the government has introduced Sure Start Children’s Centres, where children under 5 years old and their families can receive integrated services and information in one place, under one roof. “The Government is committed to delivering a Sure Start Children’s Centre for every community by 2010.” (www.surestart.gov.uk) and believes these Centres will deliver better outcomes for children enabling all families access to an affordable, flexible, high quality childcare place for their child.
1.7 Equality of opportunity for all children
All children must be allowed the opportunity to play in order to learn and develop socially and emotionally, in a way that will not stereotype them, regardless of race, religion, gender, disability or social status.
The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC) recognises the importance of equality for all children and aims to provide special protection measures and assistance, so all children can access education and healthcare services equally. It is crucial for all children to be given the opportunity and freedom to develop their personalities, abilities and talents to the fullest potential, where they are able to grow up in an environment of happiness, love and understanding, free from the stereotypical conventions of the society in which they live.
All children, from a very early age learn about gender roles and identity from their immediate carers within the home and by what is observed within society and the media as a whole. Children learn by modelling the behaviour of significant others, and gender is no exception to this. If a boy is repeatedly called ‘tiger’ or ‘champ’ as a nickname, what they associate with that name is aggression and dominance. Similarly a girl will correlate ‘angel’ or ‘princess’ with a peaceful nature and more calming presence. In addition to this, girls are more readily encouraged to participate in ‘boyish’ activities such as running or tree climbing, than a boy who wishes to dress up as a fairy or a princess.
For children to develop their own identity, self esteem and gender identity roles, they should be encouraged to indulge in as many different play activities as possible within the home and wider community.
2. Conclusion
It is the author’s opinion that the role of parents, their child-rearing styles and the external and environmental factors they are exposed to are instrumental in child development. However, we must not forget the differences within families, whether a child has siblings, attend full-time day nursery or are looked after at home and the impact this can have on child development and learning.
A parent’s social status and cultural beliefs including their views about play and it’s value can influence a child’s overall holistic development, aswell as their cognitive and communication skills.
3. Bibliography
Barnes, P. (1995). Personal, Social and Emotional Development of Children. Oxford, The Open University and Blackwell Publishers.
Fontana, D. (1988). PSYCHOLOGY FOR TEACHERS. Basingstoke, Macmillan Publishers.
Garvey, C. (1991) Play 2nd Edition, Glasgow, Harper Collins
Godwin, D. & Perkinsins, M. (1998), Teaching Language and literacy in the Early Years, David Fulton Publishers, London.
Isaacs, S. (1929), The Nursery Years, London, Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Jersild, A.T. (1968). Child Psychology. London, Staples Press
Lindon, J. (1998), Understanding Child Development, Hampshire, Macmillan Press
Lindon, J. (2005). Understanding Child Development, Linking Theory and Practice. London, Hodder Arnold.
Moyles, J. (1994) The Excellence of Play, Philadelphia, Open University Press
MacLeod-Brudenell, I. (2004). Advanced Early Years Care and Education. Oxford, Heinemann.
Smith, P.K. Cowie, H. Blades, M. Understanding Children’s Development. Fourth Edition. London, Blackwell Publishing.
Whitehead, M. (2007), Early Years Foundations, Meeting the Challenge. Maidenhead, Open University Press.
Electronic References
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4.1 Observation 1 - Social
DATE - 05.11.07 TIME – 10.45am
NUMBER OF PUPILS - 26 children in Reception class.
2 Children AGE – 4
Foundation/Keystage 1.
This observation was over a short period of about ten minutes at the start of morning break, when the children were in the cloakroom putting on their coats to go outside. The observation was of 2 children and how they helped each other with their coats, scarves and gloves before going out to play together.
Child 1 was in the cloakroom trying to put on her coat, at the same time Child 2 was putting her scarf around her neck. Child 1 walked towards the Teacher and said “Miss will you help me with my coat, I can’t put it on”
Child 2 interrupted and said “It’s because your sleeve is not the right way round”.
The Teacher helped Child 1 turn her sleeve out so it was no longer inside out and held the cuff as she tried to push her arm inside. Child 1 then said “Oh Miss, my sleeve’s gone right up my arm now”. The Teacher said to Child 1 next time it would be a good idea to hold onto the cuff of her sweatshirt before putting her arm in the sleeve of her coat. Child 1 looked puzzled and said “Miss I don’t know how to do that”.
Child 2 was putting her own coat on and said to Child 1, “Watch me, I can do it. Hold here on your jumper like this, then push your arm in your coat”. Child 1 watched as Child 2 put on her coat. Child 2 then said to the Teacher, “This is how my mummy said I have to put my coat on.” “I can do it all by myself, can’t I Miss?” The Teacher said “Well done, yes you can do it all by yourself, thank you for helping your friend with her coat” “How kind you are to your friends.” Child 1 then said “Miss I can do it by myself too can’t I Miss?” Child 2 fastened the zip on her own coat then turned to Child 1 and said “Do you want me to pull your zip up, cos I can you know.” Child 1 shook her head and said “No, I can do that myself.” Then she smiled and pulled her zip up.
The teacher then said “Come on my little love bugs, playtime will nearly be over, hurry up and get outside so you can play in the fresh air.” Child 1 grabbed hold of Child 2’s arm and said to her “Can I play with you?” Child 2 said “yes” and they both went skipping up the corridor to the door that lead’s onto the yard.
Once in the playground, both children ran up and down holding hands and smiling to each other before talking and holding hands with two different children. They then all appeared to be playing chase together very happily and they showed this by laughing loudly and smiling lots.
Evaluation
Both children appear to have good self-esteem, are positive, socially confident and can talk easily and interact with their friends or the TA. According to MacLoed-Brudenell, “humans are social beings and, therefore, their social interactions are an integral aspect of their development and well-being.” (2004, pg. 122)
Child 2 was being a positive role model for child 1, showing her how to put on her coat and offering to pull up the zip. According to Bandura’s Social Learning Theory, “children learn not only from direct reinforcement, but also from observing and imitating the behaviour of significant others.” (MacLoed-Brudenell, 2004, pg 123)
Once Child 1 had managed to fasten her zip herself she smiled, looking very pleased with her achievement, which according to Bandura’s intrinsic reinforcement theory, “feelings shape behaviour through internally experienced rewards such as a sense of personal satisfaction and pride in managing something”. (Lindon, 1998, pg. 118)
4.2 Observation 2 Emotional/Attachment
DATE – 25.09.07 TIME – 08.55 9.05am
NUMBER OF PUPILS - 26 children in Reception class.
Child – D.M. AGE – 4
Foundation/Keystage 1.
This observation was carried out over the first ten minutes of the day as the children came into the class after hanging their coats up. It is only the 3rd week of their first term within Reception Class.
The children walk into the classroom as the Class Teacher at the front of the class say’s “Good Morning boys and girls, come and sit down on the carpet for a minute”.
Most of the children walk onto the carpet slowly and sit down, facing the teacher. At the back of the class, Child D is heard crying while his mum is trying to encourage him to let go of her neck so she can go to work. Child D is becoming very agitated as the Teaching Assistant tries to explain to him that his mum will only be going to Asda for some shopping for his tea and she will be back very soon.
Child D begins to scream, as the Teaching Assistant tries to lift him from his mum’s neck. His mum says, “Have a good day, I love you very much son, I’ll be back to pick you up very soon.”
As Child D is prised from his mum, his screams become louder as he shouts “Mummy, I want another kiss, I need another kiss before you go, Mummy I need another kiss!”
His mum then comes back into the classroom at the back and tries to give him one last kiss, but Child D quickly grabs hold of his mum’s coat and begins to cry again, asking for a kiss.
His mum kisses him again and this time walks into the classroom holding his hand saying “If I come in for a minute will you let me go to work?” Child D nods then sits down on his mum’s knee at the front of the class.
The Class Teacher says good morning to his mum and asks the rest of the children to say good morning also. Whilst his mum is in the class, Child D begins to listen to the teacher and stops crying, however once she makes an attempt at leaving, he begins to scream and cry all over again.
This time, the Teaching Assistant holds onto Child D while his mum leaves the classroom and the Class Teacher tells his mum not to worry and asks Child D to wave bye and that he will see her again very soon. Child D is crying loudly and asking for his mummy. The Class Teacher asks one of the children on the carpet next to him (Child A) to go and bring a tissue for Child D and says “Will look after him and be his friend today while he is feeling a little bit sad?” The other child nods, and goes and fetches a tissue for Child D, then hands it to him.
After about 10 minutes of sitting on the knee of the Teaching Assistant, Child D has calmed down and is no longer crying for his mummy. The TA asks him if he would like to sit next to Child A on the carpet now he was feeling happier and Child D nodded his head. Child A moved along on the carpet so there was more room for Child D to sit down and said to him “I’m your friend, I’ll look after you”. Child D smiled at him.
Evaluation
It is quite clear from this observation that this child has a very strong attachment bond with his mum; unfortunately this does not appear to be a secure bond where he feels safe when she leaves him. According to John Bowlby “the need for attachment was an instinctive biological need.” (MacLoed-Brudenell, 2004. pg. 102)
To aid his transitional process, we recommended his parents bring him into the classroom and stay with him for a short period of time each morning. This was carried out over a couple of weeks, shortening the time span in the classroom and getting D to eventually sit on the carpet with the other children. Eventually, D was able to walk in the classroom independently and leave his parents at the school door without being distressed and anxious. Jenny Lindon confirms “every effort should be made to ease the experience of transition.” (1998, pg. 188)
Another factor which may need to be given consideration is Mary Ainsworth’s theory of parental attachment, with her research indicating that how a parent remembers their own relationship with their own parents seems to provide the basis for expectations about their own role. It was stated by Mary Ainsworth that “insecurely attached parents may find it more difficult to develop secure attachments with their own infants”. (MacLeod-Brudenell, 2004, pg. 107)
4.3 Observation 3 Language
DATE - 27.10.07 TIME – 9.30am – 9.45am
NUMBER OF PUPILS - 23 children in Reception class, which is a mixed year group comprising 18 children in reception and 5 children in Year 1.
Target Child – E.L. AGE – 5 (Born October 2002)
Foundation/Keystage 1.
This observation takes place at the back of the classroom on one of the soft cushions in the book corner with child E. The Teaching Assistant asks E to choose a book that they can sit and read together, so E looks quickly at the book rack and immediately picks up Goldilocks and the 3 bears. E hands it to the TA, who asks her why she choose that particular book?
E says “cos I love this book”. The Teaching Assistant asks E if she can tell her what this story is about?
E says “it’s about a little girl who’s naughty, cos she goes in the wood and doesn’t tell her mammy where she’s gone” The Teaching Assistant says “Really?” in a mock surprised voice and asks E if going off without telling her mammy was a good idea? E says “No, cos you’ll get lost or someone might take you and your mammy won’t know where you are.”
The TA tells her she is right and that children must never ever go into the woods by themselves. E is looking at the TA and nodding her head.
The TA and E sit on the cushion and begin to read the book together, with the TA pointing to each word as she says it. E looks at the pictures closely and begins to tell the story from the pictures in the book, talking and pointing to the pictures, before using a right hand pincer grip movement to turn the page.
The TA reads the story to E while she continues to talk and turn the pages, pointing to things and pre-empting what is going to happen on the next page before it has been turned over. Each time she is right, she smiles and looks up at the TA.
When they have finished the story, E asks if they can read another book? The TA says Yes and E puts Goldilocks back on the rack and chooses another story to read.
Evaluation
It is very clear from the observation how much E enjoyed reading the story with the TA and how she was keen to read another book when the first one was finished, which confirms Bruner’s theory “that development could be accelerated when adults took a more active role in children’s learning.” (Lindon, 1998, pg. 70)
The TA provided the appropriate framework for E to relax and enjoy the story, whilst also giving her the opportunity to discuss the story and develop her language skills, which according to MacLoed-Brudenell, “Books can be very useful starting points if the adult provides the scaffolding for language extension and modelling of reading behaviour.” (2004, pg. 190)
E smiled and pointed to the pictures throughout, whilst also trying to pre-empt the story before each page was turned. The TA encourages her to do this and talks the story through with her whilst asking E questions and her opinions on bits of the story, thereby extending her language. This sharing and enthusiasm allows E to enjoy the experience of book reading whilst the TA is encouraging E to develop her independence and creative ideas and developing her use of language, listening and memory skills.
This approach builds on the “scaffolding” work of Vygotsky (1986) “who described the optimal levels of learning and understanding reached by children when they are doing things in partnership with an older and more experienced member of the culture”. (Whitehead, 2007, pg. 272)
E has a good command of language and shows this when communicating with the TA and pre-empting parts of the story, confirming she is at the appropriate developmental level for her age. According to MacLoed-Brudenell “Children learn to speak more readily when they are involved in conversations.” (2004, pg. 192)
E’s enjoyment of the book and independence could be stretched slightly if the TA was to introduce the government initiative of “Story Sacks” the next time they read together. According to Vygotsky’s ZPD theory (1978) “children are introduced to new knowledge and different perspectives on old knowledge through speech and conversation with other children and adult”. (Barnes, 1995. pg. 242)
4.4 Observation 4 - Free Play - Physical
Date - 03.0.07 Time - 1.30pm Setting - Outside play area
Number of children - 13 (B&G Mixed) Number of adults - 1
Activity – Free Play toys Childs age - 4 Childs Initials – W.T. (Boy)
After lunch time registration was taken, the outside play area to Reception class was set up with some different toys for the children to use in imaginative play. There were three bicycles, a sit in/ride in car, dolls with prams/pushchairs, dressing up clothes, farmyard and animals, cars and garage and some hobby horses and a quiet area with some large jigsaws on a mat.
W.T. was one of the first few children picked to go outside in the play area by the class teacher, he smiled as his name was said and walked outside looking very happy. He then walked around the different activities that had been set up. He ran to the large sit in car and got inside, closing the door behind him. He then pushed it along the ground with his feet, while pressing the horn in the middle of the steering wheel to get a sound from it. He moved the car around the outside area with his feet, avoiding the other children and activities and shouting “BEEP BEEP” as he got near the other children.
One of the other children then came up to the car and W.T. and said “I want to play with that now” “Can I have a go?” W.T. then said “OK” and got out of the car so the other child could play with it.
W.T. then went over to the hobby horse and started stroking it’s head. He then picked up the hobby horse and placed the stick between his legs and began to gallop around the play area shouting “Neh Neh”. He galloped towards a teaching assistant who was helping a little girl into a dressing up outfit and said “Miss, I’ve got a horse, do you like it?”. The TA said it looked fab and asked if it had a name? W.T. said “No.” then put down the hobby horse and picked up a dressing up jacket and hat and began to put them on. The TA helped him fasten the jacket and told him he looked great, just like a real jockey! The TA then asked him if he was in a horse race? W.T. nodded, then picked up the hobby horse again and ran off around the play area with it, wearing the hat and jacket, grinning and looking very happy.
Evaluation
It is clear from this observation how W.T. enjoyed this opportunity to indulge in free play, and was smiling and happy throughout. He showed good spatial awareness and consideration for his friends by not bumping into them and showed good physical skills and sense of direction and control when playing.
He has a good understanding of how and when to use the car horn which could be from copying what he has seen an adult do whilst driving. All of these characteristics can be linked to Bruner’s social learning theory and role modelling behaviour. As Bruner wrote, “Play provides an excellent opportunity to try combinations of behaviour that wouldn’t be tried under functional pressure.” (Moyles, 1994, pg 70)
When he played on the hobby horse, he displayed symbolic/ludic play to act out a real life situation, as put forward by Corrine Hutt (1979) in her model of how children play and according to Moyles, “Play is a non-threatening way to cope with new learning and still retain self-esteem and self-image.” (1994, pg. 7)
According to Piaget, “children progress through stages of functional play, through dramatic play and onto socio-dramatic play”. (Moyles, 1994, pg. 91)
Margaret McMillan and Susan Isaacs were early play pioneers who recognised the importance of play for children’s development. Susan Isaacs was so convinced of the value of play that she claimed “that play indeed is the child’s work, and the means by which he or she develops.” (Isaacs, 1929)
4.5 Observation 5 2D and 3D shape work - Cognitive
DATE – 29.10.07 TIME – 11.00am – 11.15am
NUMBER OF PUPILS - 23 children in Reception class, which is a mixed year group comprising 18 children in reception and 5 children in Year 1.
Target Child – H.T. AGE – 4 (Born August 2003)
Foundation/Keystage 1 .
This observation was carried out during a 2D and 3D shape lesson during numeracy hour. All of the children were sitting crossed legged, in a circle, with their arms folded and the Teaching Assistant was sitting on the carpet with them in the circle. The TA places her shape bag on the floor and the children sit and watch whilst one by one both 2D and 3D shapes are lifted out one at a time. The TA introduces each shape to the children, explaining its name, how many sides it has, if any, and whether or not it is a 2D or 3D shape and then passes it to the children in the circle to feel and pass on.
Child H is looking around at the other children while the TA is talking and he is not looking at the shapes as the children pass them around, until it is his turn to hold the sphere. He then sits up, looking at the TA and shouts out “Look Miss, I’ve got the ball now.” The TA congratulates him and asks him if he can remember the proper name for the shape instead of calling it a ball? She told him to feel it again, asking him if it was a flat shape or a fat shape. Child H answered it was fat, saying “It’s a 3d shape miss”. He is praised by the TA and she say’s if he can remember it’s correct name, he will be able to go and put his name in the happiness box then the TA tries to help him remember the name by giving him the first sound of “S”.
At this point, some of the other children on the carpet put their hands up and shout out that they know the answer.
Child H then puts his hand up again, so the TA asks him if he can remember the name of the shape and he says “Severe”. The TA praises him and pronounces it Sphere and asks him and the rest of the children to say it aloud with her. The TA asks all of the children to say Sphere again and pass the shape around as they say its name.
Child H is asked if he would like to go and put his name in the happiness box for trying so hard. He nods his head, gets up from the carpet and heads towards the box. He then comes back to the TA and asks if he can use his name card from his tray to copy his name down on the paper. The TA says, Yes, asks him if he can remember where it is kept and asks him to find the right card with his name on without any help from anyone else.
Child H walks over to his table and looks in the tub where his name card is and picks them all out and places them on the table in front of him. The TA explains to him that the side with his Christian name on is yellow, which is the side he will need and not the white side showing the surnames. With this information, H then precedes to turn them all over to the yellow side. The TA then reminds him that his name begins with the letter H and uses the jolly phonics sign to job his memory of which letter to look for. He then uses his index finger on his right hand to point to the first letter on each card until he finds the one beginning with H. He then picks it up and walks back over to the TA, where he asks her if it is the right one. The TA tells him it is, praises him again for finding it so quickly and asks him to write his name down by copying the letters on his name card. He does this slowly and methodically, copying the letters down in the correct order, then puts it in the happiness box and comes and sits back down on the carpet.
Evaluation
It is evident from the observation that Child H learns better and is able to stay more focused on the task when he can handle the shape, suggesting he is a kinesthetic/tactile learner. Howard Gardner cites evidence that “some people have a natural propensity to learn through verbalising, others through visualising and others through ‘doing’”. (Moyles, 2004, pg. 71)
Unfortunately for kinesthetic learners, our educational system favours those who learn most effectively through the auditory mode.
When H receives praise from the TA and a possible reward of putting his name in the happiness box, he manages to think of the name of the shape. According to the behaviourist, Skinner, his theory “recognises the importance of rewarding or using positive reinforcement when the desired behaviour occurs, in order to increase the chances of it being repeated.” (MacLoed-Brudenell, 2004, pg. 123)
