Self - Esteem, Praise, Encouragement - The Key to Student Success?
Self - Esteem, Praise, Encouragement - The Key to Student Success?
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Success in school life is thought by some, including some teachers; to depend on innate intelligence as measured by standard Intelligence Quotient (IQ) scores (Rosenthal & Rubin, 1978; Canfield, 1976). This, however, is often not the case and it has been found in some studies that student self esteem is more highly correlated with student success than is IQ (Canfield, 1976). This is the good news, as there is little that teachers can do to change IQ (Davenport, 1992; Wood, 1988; Binet & Simon, 1916). However, there is much that teachers can do to raise student self esteem, significantly increasing the probability that the student will be successful in school (Lawrence, 1996).
Self-esteem (or self-regard), is an evaluative measure of our self-image, what Coopersmith (1967) terms:
"a personal judgement of worthiness, that is expressed in the attitudes the individual holds towards himself".
Or that Websters Dictionary (1986) refers to as 'Belief in oneself'. It is also a student's awareness that he or she is a person of worth or value simply because he is a human being. Self - esteem is recognising that because one is treated with respect by others, one is worthy of respect. Finally self esteem is also a sense of self-confidence resulting from successful completion of attempted tasks (Lawrence, 1996).
Already within schools there are those who are laying the foundations for reform and restructure that will ensure that every student has the opportunity to succeed during school as they grow in self worth. The teacher of any student is in a powerful position to influence the self - esteem of their students, through the establishment of a caring relationship and the use of systematic activities (Adalsteinsdottir, 2004; Lawrence 1996)
This development is not without controversy though. In a commentary in US News & World Report (April 1990) there is a suggestion that self esteem enhancement is nothing more than 'fun and games', and valuable time expended in classrooms detracts from the real business of teaching and learning.
Additionally, there are some researchers who assert that self - esteem ratings are almost always based on what students say about themselves and how they wish to appear, and as such have an ambitious, aggressive or self aggrandising style of presenting themselves (Baumeister, Tice & Hutton, 1989). Doubt has also been raised into the 200+ instruments for measuring self - esteem as, according to Scheff, Retzinger & Ryan, (1989) and Handsford & Hattie, (1982), it is difficult to generalise about research findings of the 10,000+ studies completed as many of the studies have not been properly validated and hence are of questionable value.
What supporters of this philosophy maintain is that students who are classified as having low self - esteem are relative to other students; in absolute terms, the responses of these students put them somewhere in the middle range of possible scores, as students who fill in self - esteem questionnaires rarely wind up near the bottom of the scale. In other words, students classified as having low self - esteem are typically not so much down on themselves as simply 'neutral in their self descriptions' (Tice, 1993).
These though are common misunderstandings of the relationship between learning and self esteem. If, in fact, self - esteem 'lessons' are a separate curriculum taught in isolation from the rest of the curriculum, then this objection is well founded. If on the other hand, the whole classroom experience is used as a vehicle in which self - esteem is strengthened, then the conclusion is erroneous. During a recent conference held in the United States, several key speakers pointed out that because of the variety of problems students face at home and in their communities, lessons should help foster self esteem, not undermine it (Nave & Robert, 1998).
This study will examine the way self - esteem is encouraged in a special provision for children with autism and related learning difficulties. It will examine the approaches used to support learning and make recommendations based on these approaches. The study will also suggest methods of evaluation that can be used to report on the success or otherwise of using self - esteem to build success.
Conditions that affect Self Esteem in School
Certain situations or conditions that occur in or around a school setting can cause a negative impact on a student's self-esteem level, through no fault of their own. This is normally due to failure of fitting their peer-group's stereotype of what constitutes a fellow student (Trevarthen, Aitken, Papoudi & Robarts 1998). Children with Learning Difficulties are particularly vulnerable; if a teacher is aware of these conditions though they may be able to lessen their impact on the student.
Secondary school children have their own set of unique problems. Adolescence is surely the period of greatest challenge and confusion in any student's lifetime (Purbrick & Aird, 1994). Children at secondary school have to deal with a constant battle between the privileges and enjoyments of youth, and the responsibilities of adulthood. For children aged between 11 and 18 years, an identity crisis is occurring and will continue throughout their educational life. During this period adolescents' bodies are physically changing, while they are simultaneously trying to identify the position of their social status amongst a peer group. Added to this adolescents are striving for independence from their parents, and recognition of this is required in order to enhance their self-image with both their peer group and their parents. During adolescence the primary focus is on establishing a positive ego identity, peer group recognition and development of social skills all of which can impact on self esteem (Purbrick & Aird, 1994; Smith, Cowie and Blades, 2004).
Teachers of Children with Special Education Needs may notice the severity of impact on their students' self-esteem levels during adolescence are amplified, for two reasons;
. The placing of the student into a separate Special Needs, or lower ability class, takes them away from their adolescent peer group.
2. Special Needs students may have a tendency to over state their problems (i.e. even more than usually disruptive behaviour) in order to receive additional attention from their adult group of parents and teachers (Jordan, 1999; Seligman 1975)
Both these activities may alienate peers and result in social isolation. However low levels of academic self-concept can correlate with high levels of social self-concept dependent on the social peer group the individual moves in (Byrne, 1996).
A thorough search of the literature relating to self-esteem indicates there are many educational practices that are highly correlated with student self-esteem. However, the results from the search can be grouped into three main categories: (1) teacher attributes and attitudes, (2) classroom methods and techniques and (3) school environment.
Attitudes and Attributes of Teachers
We come to esteem ourselves as others esteem us (Beane & Lipka, 1984; Patterson, 1973). Therefore it is not surprising that teachers under whose tutelage student self-esteem increases accept students as individuals, as persons of infinite worth and value, as persons with absolute dignity as human beings and therefore worthy of the utmost respect. These teachers do not make judgments based on the student's race, socio-economic status, family origin, hairstyle or dress. Every student is accepted, respected and cared for. Teachers demonstrate this in two ways: (1) by making the time to reinforce the importance of a student's needs and (2) by positively, unconditionally and actively listening and having regard for each student and acknowledging his or her needs, dreams and problems (Rogers, 1961). Teachers and staff in the setting for this study in addition to the above, also place high expectations on each student. They believe that every student can learn and that every student will learn. They believe in their own ability to find the key to unlock each student's intrinsic motivation. Ultimately, the teachers assume what the literature calls 'the extended role of the teacher' (Lockwood, 1989). This means that the teacher is sensitive to any of the developmental needs of the student, becoming, as the student's needs might dictate: advocate, advisor, counsellor, friend, mentor or social worker (Weber & Seckler 1987).
Students report that their experiences within the provision are markedly different from their previous schools. Many report that though they were not mistreated, they did feel as if they were invisible. They were not among those students who received continuous teacher attention; the academically gifted, the athletically inclined, the physically attractive or those from wealthy and influential families. Since students did not get such attention they felt unimportant, as if they did not exist. As the provision is one that encourages integration within the attached mainstream school it has been found that the students are in an ideal ...
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Students report that their experiences within the provision are markedly different from their previous schools. Many report that though they were not mistreated, they did feel as if they were invisible. They were not among those students who received continuous teacher attention; the academically gifted, the athletically inclined, the physically attractive or those from wealthy and influential families. Since students did not get such attention they felt unimportant, as if they did not exist. As the provision is one that encourages integration within the attached mainstream school it has been found that the students are in an ideal position to give accounts of their experiences and the attitudes of some teachers within the main school. Students report that it is often the case that acceptance and regard is given conditionally in an attempt to control or manage behaviour and/or for success. Having experienced this first hand when a very senior manager at the main school 'accused' the author of 'being too child centred' the author can empathise with the students feelings. Feelings which according to Rogers (1961) prevent a person from fully experiencing the world and developing his or her true potential.
Classroom Methods and Techniques
Classroom techniques and teaching methods that raise student self-esteem do so because they simultaneously raise student achievement (Schmidt, 1988; Lawrence, 1996; Barbra & Barbra, 1978). Sceptics may argue that these methods may enhance achievement when used by any teacher, not just the type previously described (Tice, 1993; Baumeister et al 1989). Most research, however, suggests that this is not so (Davis-Keen & Sandler, 2001). Student learning is strongly correlated with a positive personal relationship between student and teacher, just the kind of relationship that results from the attitudes and attributes discussed earlier (Wasserman, 2004). Therefore, it seems that student success depends upon a caring teacher as well as the use of proven methods. Several of the techniques that raise self-esteem are described in the learning literature (see for example; Argyle, 1994; Canfield & Wells; 1976, Graham, 1988; Grant, 1988; Hamby, 1989; Lawrence, 1996; Slavin, 1989; Vickery, 1988). These include techniques that are in use in the specialist provision, namely; individualised self-paced instruction, identification and utilisation of individual learning styles and small discrete learning increments that produce success at almost every step and limit failure. Students are also totally involved in their goal-setting, as well as major life and career goals. With guidance from their teacher, these goals are realistic (based on the student's aptitudes and past performance) and some goals are immediately obtainable to provide instant success and positive feedback; some include those lifelong dreams to which the students aspire.
Within the special provision there is also an understanding about mistakes and failures. That is, mistakes are positive. They are positive because they inform the teacher what needs to be taught or re-taught. Gradual success rather than continual success has become the yardstick by which learning is judged (Clifford, 1990). Mistakes are viewed as positive because they show the student where additional study is needed. There is no stigma or negative consequence following a mistake because no marks are given until the unit of work is completed. Furthermore, mistakes are used to teach an important life skill, that of acceptance. The teacher demonstrates this acceptance in helping students to accept themselves for not being perfect - unconditionally and positively.
School Environment
Another factor which has been found to enhance student self-esteem is the school environment (Beane & Lipka, 1984). Self-esteem flourishes in schools that feel small, in which students feel that they belong to an important group, in which individual membership is recognised and acknowledged and in which they feel a sense of ownership (of the school itself and its curriculum). Often this can be achieved in larger schools by creating 'schools within schools' (Fine, 1988).
A study by researchers at the University of Chicago found that schools in which there exists a 'sense of community', a common purpose, shared values and an understanding of rights and obligations are more effective than their counterparts (Ladestro, 1990).
Ladestro also found that students in these schools demonstrated fewer discipline problems, were significantly more interested in school and were excluded less often. Schools with a positive environment allow and even encourage democratic processes, permitting students genuine and significant input into decisions which directly affect them. Problems are solved collaboratively through open discussion and negotiation, not by autocratic fiat and administration of punishment. Students in this type of school not only increase their self-esteem, but also learn the value of democratic citizenship by putting it into practice within the school. Within the specialist provision this concept is underscored during the admission of new students and students frequently reiterate how good it makes them feel to be an integral part of the department.
Self-esteem can also be defined as the belief that a person is accepted, connected, unique, powerful, and capable (McFarla, 1988). Self-esteem issues take on a particular significance for students with learning or attention problems because self-assessment of this concept requires the ability to evaluate and compare (Oregon Resiliency Project, 2003). These are two skills that are extraordinarily challenging for students with special needs. Therefore, these children are often unable to accurately measure or assess their own self-esteem (Mather & Goldstein, 2001).
Because self-esteem is a feeling, not a skill, it can only be measured by observing the way in which a person acts or behaves. Teachers and parents must become keen and insightful observers of children in order to assess their self-esteem and we would do well to be mindful of the erudite words of the Plowden Report (1967): 'The best preparation for being a happy and useful adult is to live fully as a child'.
Within the provision we have found that students with high self-esteem will:
* Feel capable of influencing another's opinions or behaviours in a positive way.
* Be able to communicate feelings and emotions in a variety of situations.
* Approach new situations in a positive and confident manner.
* Exhibit a high level of frustration tolerance.
* Accept responsibility.
* Keep situations (positive and negative) in proper perspective.
* Communicate positive feelings about themselves.
* Possess an internal locus of control (belief that whatever happens to them is the result of their own behaviour and actions).
Conversely, students with low self-esteem will:
* Consistently communicate self-derogatory statements.
* Exhibit learned helplessness (Seligman, 1973)
* Not volunteer.
* Practice perfectionism.
* Be overly dependent.
* Demonstrate an excessive need for acceptance: a great desire to please authority figures.
* Have difficulty making decisions.
* Exhibit low frustration tolerance.
* Become easily defensive
* Have little faith in their judgment and be highly vulnerable to peer pressure.
*
In Praise of Praise
Children, especially those with learning difficulties need consistent praise in order to feel good about themselves (Clarke & Walberg, 1968; Siegel, 2003).
In countless special education classrooms, teachers heap bucketsful of praise on children and yet these children still have insecure self-concepts and low self-esteem. Praise, in and of itself, is not enough to create and maintain positive self-esteem. Praise does not have the desired effect unless it is given properly, it doesn't work all the time and it doesn't work with all the children (Wing, 1996; Siegel, 2003).
Although Clark and Walberg (1968) showed that excessive praise could work under certain conditions it is usually thought that praise needs to be used appropriately and sparingly. If not, children could begin to view praise as nothing more than 'White Noise' (e.g. 'Way to breath Johnny', 'Nice job walking, Sally', 'Good doing that...Paul'.) Children become so accustomed to a consistent barrage of praise that it becomes meaningless and ineffectual for them and so less effective (Reasoner 1997).
In order to be effective we have found that praise should be:
Contingent - There must be a solid, realistic reason to praise the student. The comment should respond directly to behaviour that reflects a student's improvement, accomplishment, or effort. The praise should also be in 'the here and now'.
Sincere - Children can recognise 'fake praise' in an instant. This insincere praise is ineffective and can cause the student to feel minimised and patronised.
Creative - Find unique ways to give praise; we leave a nice note in the lunchbox or tape a note to the mirror, tell another 'significant other' about the student's progress and ask that she deliver the praise message for example.
(Adapted from Mains, Robbins and Chari, 1999)
Praise can be an effective vehicle to improve self-esteem but there is a strategy that is even more effective. That technique involves the use of encouragement. Dr. Rudolph Dreikurs a noted psychologist (1997) said that '...a student needs encouragement like a plant needs sun and water.' It is this strategy that can have a significant and lasting impact upon the student's view of himself.
Praise and encouragement are positive, effective, and beneficial strategies to use with children and it has been found within the provision that use of these techniques can
* build self-esteem
* enhance pride
* foster cooperation
* build positive relationships
* celebrate unique skills and abilities
* assist Children during difficult or challenging times.
However, there are distinct and significant differences between praise and encouragement, these distinctions are:
* Praise is a reward that must be earned ("Well done, Daniel. You got 90 in that spelling test."). Encouragement is a gift ("I'm glad to see you trying so hard, Sean!").
* Praise uses words that judge ("You got twenty questions right, Taylor. That's terrific!").
* Encouragement uses words that notice ("I was so happy to see you arrive on time for class and be in such a great mood!").
* Praise promotes competition ("Jilly, you got the best marks in the class!"). Encouragement promotes cooperation ("Zack, keep trying! You're getting better all the time!").
* Praise reflects contingent acceptance ("Shannon, I love it when you keep your room so clean!"). Encouragement reflects unconditional acceptance ("Ken, I love being around you!").
* Praise teaches the student to please the adult (Heidi, you did a great job tonight. I am very happy with you."). Encouragement teaches the student to please himself ("Abby, I noticed how helpful you were today. You should be very proud of yourself.").
* Praise can only be given when the student is successful ("Adam, you did great on the spelling test."). Encouragement can be given when the student is experiencing failure or frustration ("Shane, you have really been trying on these maths problems. Keep it up!").
Praise can become addicting and can cause the student to seek extrinsic motivation. On the other hand, encouragement is less likely to become so and it promotes intrinsic motivation. Basically, praise works, but we think that encouragement works better.
As teachers and parents it is possible to give children a great gift by expressing genuine interest in their lives as well as praise and encouragement. The troika of praise, encouragement and interest when dealing with children with learning difficulties ensures that as teachers we are mindful of their self-esteem. Our small acts of kindness throughout the day can and do make a genuine and lasting impact on them and their lives (Clark & Walberg 1968; Lawrence, 1996; Moyes, 2001; Siegel, 2003). Special Education is not about breakthroughs and miracles. Rather it is about small actions which build up to eventually become major victories.
How do we assess self-esteem?
Ideally the most appropriate way of assessing self-esteem levels of a child or class is to get to know them well over a period of time (Lawrence 1996). However this is not always possible if dealing with a new class or a difficult individual child, when speed of assessment, is of the essence. If the teacher does not wish to engage in complex assessment methods, a few simple techniques can be used. Within the specialist provision a variety of different instruments are used to assess a students self - esteem. The team of teachers and support assistants in the provision always use the LAWSEQ, primary or secondary version, (details below) as a baseline for the students. This is supplemented according to the need and comprehension of the student by one of the other instruments listed below:
* Interviews - where by a skilled teacher encourages the child to discuss their self-concept. Interaction with the child can be both helpful and inhibiting dependent upon the previous relationship between teacher and pupil.
* A Teacher Check List - this is filled in by the teacher based on observations, of the pupil's behaviour (Burns, 1979)
* A Child Check List - basically a list of similar questions to the Teacher Check List, however this is for self-completion by the child (Burns, 1979) (Appendix C).
* Free Response Method - the child is asked to write a story about themselves, and to list attributes which they believe to be personal characteristics.
* Q-Sort - this involves the sorting into different piles by the child, of a series of cards. Each card contains a statement about the self (e.g. I am always happy). The first ordering is ranked in priority of how the child sees itself, and the second ordering is how the child would like to be. There are over 22 different set of these cards on the market, however Bulter & Haigh's (1954) 100 card set, is the most frequently used and is fairly accurate. Although time consuming to set-up, the effort is repaid by the involvement and interest levels of the student (Appendix A).
* Psychometric Tests - Some psychometric tests are sufficiently user-friendly to be considered for use in the mainstream classroom. Included here are the LAWSEQ "Primary School" Version (Lawrence, 1982) and the LAWSEQ "High School" Version (Lawrence, 1982) which measure global self-esteem in a speedy and simple manner. It is particularly useful for the teacher starting in a new class, who wishes to make a quick assessment of their pupils' self-esteem level and can provide a useful 'before' and 'after' measure (Appendix B). In the example given in Appendix B three students entering the provision in Year 7 (aged 11) were required to complete the LAWSEQ Primary questionnaire. After the first term in the provision the students were again asked to complete the questionnaire. The results appear to show that during the time in the provision their self - esteem score had risen considerably.
Person Centred Counselling
Counselling and pastoral care by teachers or other professionals is recognised for its contribution to self-esteem enhancement in children and is used within the provision. Many Teacher Training programmes include units on counselling skills in the classroom or the duties of pastoral care (Mearns & Thorne, 1999) and this is no different in the special provision where this study is based. Carl Rogers (1969) defines core conditions for necessary and sufficient counselling, these are empathy, genuineness (or congruence) and unconditional positive regard (or respect):
Empathy - is achieved by what Rogers referred to being within the client's "frame of reference", and involves a combination of two skills. The first understands the child by placing oneself in the client/students position and perceiving the situation as they perceive it. Second is the ability to communicate this understanding of the client/students position to the client in order to encourage and support them. This is extremely difficult to achieve as it requires constant focus on all aspects of the clients/students conversation and behaviour. It is not sympathy, which involves pity and compassion, but recognition of the student's situation.
Genuineness (or Congruence) - this is the embodiment of approach ability, by being a real or genuine person. The counsellor must be "transparent" in their openness to the client and reject all semblance of pretence or superiority. No deception or empty words should be attempted. If the counsellor is shocked into disapproval of client/students admissions, then the counsellor's perception should be brought in awareness for discussion. Only in this way can the client be encouraged to become more open and thus gain a deeper insight into themselves.
Respect (or Unconditional Positive Regard) - the client should be "prized" by the counsellor and be respected or valued. Every client/student is seen as a unique individual about whom there should be no preconceived ideas of blame. Regardless of their problems or difficulties, the client/student has the right to be accepted for themselves. Without this acceptance and appreciation of who they are, the client/student will be unable to discuss their behaviour which the counsellors may be viewing in a negative light. The behaviour of a client/student must be seen as separate to who they are, and contingent upon the current circumstances they are experiencing.
Counsellors or others who wish to assess self-esteem must keep several considerations in mind, including demand characteristics of self-report measure, technical adequacy of the assessment procedure, and whether the assessment is being used for research or clinical purposes. Self-report measures make several requirements of the respondent (Burns, 1979). First, the person must have a sufficient level of self-awareness. Young children may lack confidence but may not be consciously aware of their own perceptions. Second, self-report measures also require substantial verbal competence, a skill that can not be assumed. Third, even children are aware that some responses are more socially acceptable than others. The accuracy of self-reports is often decreased by this 'social desirability' response tendency (Strein, 2004).
Conclusion and Recommendations
This report has confirmed the usefulness of raising self - esteem and the view that there is much to be achieved through its use with children with autism and learning difficulties.
The complexity of the difficulties surrounding the experiences of a child with autism and learning difficulties in mainstream education have lead to the belief that raising students self - esteem is a way forward. The use of various evaluation instruments offer the pupils a relaxed non-threatening addressing of the problems that they face in the mainstream school environment and as such could be considered as an intervention, although sometimes time consuming, that is worthy of consideration
Two conclusions can be drawn about self-esteem. First, that as human beings there are no neutral interactions with other human beings. Every interaction with another individual affects self-esteem either positively or negatively (Bowlby, 1969). Therefore educators must be fully conscious of the power they have to positively or negatively impact upon students' self-esteem. Inadvertent or thoughtless actions may lower a student's perception of himself. And this is an area over which those in education have immediate and total control.
Secondly, it appears that there must be significant restructuring of the educational system in order to allow and encourage the kind of school environment and personal interactions previously described. Anything else will leave far too many students far short of achieving their full potential.
The reality exists that many times practices and policies are not determined by those on the front lines. However, to the extent possible in individual classrooms the following recommendations can have a positive effect on student self-esteem.
* Greet each student by name and use names frequently. Don't let a student feel as if he or she is invisible.
* Individualise, as much as possible, lesson plans on the basis of student goals, aptitudes, interests, abilities, learning styles and speeds.
* Use mistakes and failures as positive learning experiences.
* Use marks as demonstrations of mastery, not to separate or categorise students.
* Assign final marks only upon completion.
* Group students heterogeneously. Use cooperative and collaborative learning.
* Create a sense of cohesiveness and belonging for each group of students.
* Encourage democracy in the classroom and in the school. Encourage student participation. In this way they learn the system works.
* Make every effort to raise student self-esteem each day.
* Listen to students. It is often what they don't say that is important.
* Set standards of respect and dignity in the classroom by acknowledging each student's individuality.
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