The other groups that Honey and Mumford recognise are:
- Reflectors;
- Theorists;
- Pragmatists.
TB does not show the characteristics of a reflective learner, but could become with encouragement and motivation. Motivation is a key element in encouraging pupils like TB, who have the ability to learn, but lack purpose. Rae and McPhillimy (1985) agree with this and state that although learning can take place without motivation, pupils appropriate actions and responses are more likely to be carried out if the pupil is keen to learn. Theorists plan and think things through, but TB does not have the maturity to do either of these yet. Pragmatists take a practical view to tasks, getting straight to the point and giving proof for their ideas. TB does show tendencies towards this area on rare occasions. However, Cotton (1995) believes that all four areas are needed if the learner is to reach the aim of independence in learning and a mature learner should be able to utilise in all four models.
Bishop’s and Denley’s (1997) theory of learning suggest that TB is a dynamic, imaginative learner. She likes to experiment, and is not concerned by failure. She likes exciting and varied tasks when she is in the mood and sometimes takes control, occasionally involving others. She does not manage her time very well, unless she has planned it. An excuse TB used for not taking part in Physical Education lessons was that she forgot her PE kit. To solve this problem, I now keep her PE kit in my office and she takes it home once a week to wash. She is easily distracted and works in fits and starts, which leads to important details being omitted.
Through monitoring TB I found that she prefers learning through experience and practice. Flemming and Mills (1992) learning styles, VARK (visual, aural, kinaesthetic) shows preferences to learning styles and how to improve them. TB shows tendencies towards being a kinaesthetic learner; this can be seen in observations during P.E and Art lessons. She shows enthusiasm for the task in hand, and is engrossed in the activity, when working on her own.
As TB’s home life is unsettled, I feel that this contributes to her learning difficulties, especially as she has shown through her assessment that she has the ability to achieve higher results. Gagne (1985) insists that learning occurs over a period of time and is not a process of growth. Although I agree with this statement, I feel that some children find it easier to learn than others and home environment plays a big part in the way that children learn. Maslows’ Hierarchy of Needs (1943) looks at physiological and growth needs. The physiological needs are represented on the lower four levels and the growth needs is on the top level. The lower level needs need to be satisfied before higher-order needs can be satisfied. TB has the physiological needs in her environment but at times the safety of her environment is broken when she moves to a new foster family and therefore cannot progress to having ‘belongingness’ in her environment. Behaviour is driven by her desire for personal growth and acceptance by others as observed in lessons with the need to fulfil all the levels. However, because she cannot fulfil all the levels her behaviour is disrupted.
TB needs to be motivated in order to succeed at the task in hand. Ausubel, Gagne and Bruner, recognise two types of motivation: (cited in Kyriacou 1997):
- Extrinsic – Reward received at the end of the activity
- Intrinsic - Biological drive of curiosity, being interested in the subject.
Skinner (1971) also believes that reinforcement is effective in bringing about changes of behaviour. Reinforcers can be classified into 5 categories (Bijou and Sturges (1959);
- Consumables, such as sweets.
- Manipulatables, such as toys
- Visual and Auditory stimuli, such as a bell which means good work
- Social stimuli, praise
- Tokens, which can be exchanged for other reinforcers.
This theory links in with Classical Conditioning (Pavlov, 1926) which bases learning on making a new association between events happening in the environment. Simarlarly I used praise every time TB performed a good skill, such as “excellent, well done, that deserves a credit”. TB will learn that good behaviour and work in lesson results in rewards. Her next lesson in P.E, TB performed much better and wanted to show me what she could do, as she responded well to praise, and enjoyed the extrinsic rewards.
I also incorporated this theory into a netball lesson using a different technique. I told her that if she played in a netball game with the other pupils then she would be allowed to practise shooting at the end of the lesson, as she really enjoyed doing this. Premack (1965) showed that this technique worked and good behaviour which is reinforced will lead to less frequent bad behaviour. At first she said no, but after she realised she would not be allowed to do anything, she soon joined in the game and enjoyed it. I was informed by SEN that she needs clear boundaries, that I should give her one chance with no consequences, then make the consequences clear if she repeats that behaviour and if she is uncooperative do not negotiate, give her two choices (either co-operate or she gets changed and sits out the lesson). Ball (1977) theorises that pupils will take part in an uninteresting activity if it gives them a chance to do something that does interest them. I feel that it would be best to try to motivate the pupil by finding an interesting way to present the learning objective rather than resorting to bribery. In my experience, this only causes the pupil to rush their work, without thought, to move onto the desired activity which results in no learning taking place. However Kyriacou (1997) states that although intrinsic and extrinsic motivations are compared with each other, it is important that most tasks involve a mixture of the two. TB is aware that she is in a lower ability group and I feel that this has an impact upon her desire to learn. Kyriacou (1997) stresses those pupils who constantly feel they are doing less well academically than their peers, will often make less effort to succeed in the activity.
TB often has outbursts during a number of her lessons which can include screaming, throwing objects and running around the classroom. This maybe her way of craving attention from others and in most times it is seen as a game to her, as she finds it funny. A technique called therapeutic holding (Welch, 1988) I used was to go down to her level and look her straight in the eye whilst expressing my feelings. However, the technique states that you must hold the child in position that allows you to make direct contact. I could not do this but by going down to her level and looking in her eyes whilst telling her of my concerns, I found that she did listen more and responded but not always positively. This technique could be recommended to her foster carers to use (Archer, 2000).
Skelton and Playfoot (1995) point out that different teaching styles have their strengths and weaknesses, and teachers should adopt a mix of teaching styles. They add that this does not simply mean, using the whole range of styles in any one lesson, it means choosing the most appropriate method for the learning outcomes to be achieved. However, I feel that this cannot be carried out in practice all of the time as it would be impossible in a class of 30 to meet the needs of every pupil’s learning style in every lesson. However, I do need to be aware of individual learning needs of every child, and try to accommodate them where possible. I would also try to encourage children to learn in their non-preferred style to encourage a range of different styles.
To conclude, I did not find a pattern in which teaching styles TB works best in. Her behaviour can depend on many factors which may occur outside of school and cause her to behave unsuitably for that particular day. I have noticed however, that as time has progressed and she is getting used to the teachers, pupils and the school that her behaviour is becoming more acceptable and she responds well in lessons. When teaching her in lessons and to advise others, I would recommend that boundaries are set from the start and they are always followed through every lesson. This will ensure she has a clear structure, and will know what we expect and what she expects from us.
References
Archer, C., 2000. Making Holding Time cited in: Adoption UK: Making sense of Attachment in Adoption and Foster Families. London:Adoption UK.
Ball, S. 1977. Motivation in Education. London: Academic Press INC.
Bijou, S.W and Sturges, S.P., 1959. Positive reinforcers for experimental studies with children; consumables and manipulatables. Child Development, 30 (1), pp. 151-170.
Bishop,K and Denley,P., 1997. Effective Learning in Science. Stafford: Network Educational Press.
Cotton, J., 1995 The Theory of Learning Strategies. London: Kogan Page Limited.
Flemming and Mills, 1992. Vark Learning theory. [online]
Available at:
[Accessed 10 October 2008]
Gagne, R., 1985. The Conditions of Learning. 4th Edition. New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston.
Honey, P. and Mumford, A., 1989. The Manual of Learning Styles. 3rd Edition. Maidenhead : P Honey.
Kyriacou, C., 1997 Effective Teaching In Schools. 2nd Edition Cheltenham: Stanley Thornes.
Levy, T. M., & Orlans, M., 1998. Attachment, trauma, and healing: Understanding and treating attachment disorder in children and families. Washington DC: CWLA Press.
Maslow, A.H., 1943. . Psychological Review, 50 (3) pp. 370-96.
Premack, D., 1965. Toward Impirical Behaviour Laws. Positive Reinforcement. Psychological Review, 66 (4) pp. 219-233 (abstract only).
Pavlov (1926) cited in Atherton J.S., 2005. Learning and Teaching:Behaviourism. [Online] Available at: http://www.learningandteaching.info/learning/behaviour.htm
[Accessed: 4 November 2008]
Rae, G. & McPhillimy, W.N., 1985. Learning in the Primary School. 2nd Edition. Kent: Hodder and Stoughton Ltd.
Skelton, M. and Playfoot, D., 1995. Effective Teaching. London: Primary File Publishing.
Skinner., 1971. Beyond Freedom and Dignity. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
Welch M.G., 1988. Holding Time. New York. NY: Simon and Schuster
Appendices
Appendix 1
Maslows’ Hierachy of Needs (1943)
Appendix 2
Pavlov – Classical Conditioning
Pavlov’s Dogs
Dogs were presented with meat powder and their saliva was collected. Over time he noticed that the dogs who began salivating before the meat powder was presented, whether it was by the presence of the handler or merely by a clicking noise produced by the device that distributed the meat powder.
Pavlov then paired the meat powder with different stimuli such as the ringing of a bell. After the meat powder and bell (auditory stimuli) were presented on several occasions, the bell was used alone. As predicted, Pavlov’s dogs responded by salivating to the sound of the bell (without the food). In conclusion Pavlov demonstrated how stimulus response-bonds are formed.
