Take a contemporary controversy in cognitive research and use that controversy to address the following question: How is our technological society changing our understanding
Controversies in cognition Using material from your presentation, and appropriate psychology literature, take a contemporary controversy in cognitive research and use that controversy to address the following question: How is our technological society changing our understanding of the mind? The aim of this paper is to address the following issues; how valuable is technology in education, and how does its use influence the way in which we view the human mind? Attention is given to psychological learning theories, teaching, implementation of educational technology and finally the challenges of using computer games in educational contexts. Technology has had a profound impact on education and is beginning to cause repercussions in schools that will forever change how students are taught. Yet, contentious issues are arising over the extent to which information technologies can be regarded as genuine tools for learning. Some denounce technological benefits as an illusion, warn that the traditional teacher-learner dialogue could be under threat, and fear that the isolation of a computer-bound pupil or student could lead to a decline in human values and educational standards. From this point of view, the influence of technologies on the human mind is considered as the most hazardous factor. Increasing the use of technology instead of face to face communication could have negative influence on the human mind. To gain insight into this dilemma, one must first look at how children learn with consideration to psychological learning theories. Much of what happens in the traditional classroom was influenced heavily by the behaviourist movement. Among the behaviourists was Skinner (1938, 1953), who saw that human behaviour is powerfully shaped by its consequences. Moreover, Skinner felt that psychology was essentially about behaviour and that behaviour was largely determined by its outcomes. Some applications include Mastery learning and Programmed Instruction. However the behaviourists fell short of what is most important in education. To educate, you must do more than modify behaviour. To educate, you must help the student learn how to develop strategies for learning. Such is the goal of the cognitive movement in education as defined by Bruning (1995, p. 1): “Cognitive psychology is a theoretical perspective that focuses on the realms of human perception, thought, and memory. It portrays learners as active processors of information--a metaphor borrowed from the computer world-and assigns critical roles to the knowledge and perspective students bring to their learning. What learners do to enrich information, in the view of cognitive psychology, determines the level of understanding they ultimately achieve.” It is appropriate that Bruning borrows from the computer world in his definition of cognitive psychology. As you will see throughout this essay educational applications such as multimedia computers provide a powerful environment for learning. As articulated by Piaget (1969), students learn better when they can invent knowledge through inquiry and experimentation instead of acquiring facts presented by a teacher in class. It is difficult for a teacher to provide this kind of environment for each student in a traditional classroom. Since there is only one teacher for many students, it is physically impossible for the teacher to support each student's individual needs. Multimedia computers help by providing students with a world of interconnected knowledge to explore thus enabling the student to become an active processor in the information, and knowledge gained. For example virtual field trips have gained in popularity since its introduction as they answer problems of cost, distance and accessibility. They attempt to place further autonomy in the user's hands, by allowing observations to be made without being on the actual site or having a lecturer to hand to explain. Furthermore they allow interaction through participation, exploration analysis and the learning and trying out of skills in a new environment. The University of Colorado has produced a number of virtual field studies for use in a variety of undergraduate geography courses. Two of the field studies involve a combination of work on the Web and in the field and give students an opportunity to inquire into the local geography of Boulder, CO. Under this model of learning, students gain experience in the practice of geography as they learn how to acquire, map, and interpret real data on an important issue. Research has shown that GIGIs constructivist approach can improve cognitive outcomes in secondary geography education and has potential to enhance affective outcomes (Klein, 1995). The interactivity of these technology environments is a very important feature for learning. Interactivity makes it easy for students to revisit specific parts of the environments to explore them more fully, to test ideas, and to receive feedback. Noninteractive environments, like linear videotapes, are much less effective for creating contexts that students can explore and reexamine, both individually and collaboratively. Since the learner is portrayed as an active processor who explores, discovers, reflects, and constructs knowledge, the trend to teach from this perspective is known as the constructivist movement in education. John Dewey can be thought of as the Grandfather of Constructivism and was closely related to the Progressive Education Movement. Dewey believed curriculum should arise from students’ interests. He favored a "pedocentric" strategy for education. Curriculum topics should be integrated, rather than isolated from each other. Dewey believed that meaningful learning resulted from students working together on tasks that were related to their interests. Today's interdisciplinary curriculum and hands-on are very similar to Dewey's belief about education. As Bruning (1995, p. 216) explains, "The aim of teaching, from a constructivist perspective, is not so much to transmit information, but rather to encourage knowledge formation and development of metacognitive processes for judging, organizing, and acquiring new information." Several theorists have embellished this theme. Rumelhart (1981), following Piaget, introduced the notion of schemata, which are mental frameworks for comprehension that function as scaffolding for
organizing experience. At first, the teacher provides instructional scaffolding that helps the student construct knowledge. Gradually, the teacher provides less scaffolding until the student is able to construct knowledge independently. Many technologies function as scaffolds and tools to help students solve problems. This was foreseen long ago: in a prescient 1945 essay in the Atlantic Monthly, Vannevar Bush, science adviser to President Roosevelt, depicted the computer as a general-purpose symbolic system that could serve clerical and other supportive research functions in the sciences, in work, and for learning, thus freeing the human mind to pursue its creative capacities. However, by ...
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organizing experience. At first, the teacher provides instructional scaffolding that helps the student construct knowledge. Gradually, the teacher provides less scaffolding until the student is able to construct knowledge independently. Many technologies function as scaffolds and tools to help students solve problems. This was foreseen long ago: in a prescient 1945 essay in the Atlantic Monthly, Vannevar Bush, science adviser to President Roosevelt, depicted the computer as a general-purpose symbolic system that could serve clerical and other supportive research functions in the sciences, in work, and for learning, thus freeing the human mind to pursue its creative capacities. However, by focusing on the learner, the role of technology can support new understandings and capabilities, thus, offering a cognitive tool to support cognitive and metacognitive processes. For example, an electronic exchange program between students of a class in the U.S. with a similar classroom in Northern Ireland shared multiple cultural perspectives through pictures, stories, letters and multimedia programs (Duffy& Cunningham, 1996). The experience was enriching, increasing their understanding. While it is true that constructivist approaches help students develop conceptual understanding and strategies, there is still value in behavioural strategies (Ashman & Elkins, 1998; McInerney & McInerney, 1998 and Westwood, 1996). Strategies such as whole-class teaching, task analysis, explicit teaching and direct instruction should still have a place in science classrooms (particularly in those classrooms where there are children with learning difficulties and/or intellectual disabilities). Teachers should be seeking to provide the best possible education in the most appropriate way for all students and that may mean that teachers will have to consider, and make use of, learning and constructivist theories of teaching and learning as well as technology. Current learning theories suggest that students need to construct their own knowledge in order to retain larger amounts of information (Newby et al., 2000; Driscoll, 1994). Technologies, primarily computers, help build knowledge bases, which will "engage the learners more and result in more meaningful and transferable knowledge... Learners function as designers using the technology as tools for analyzing the world, accessing information, interpreting and organizing their personal knowledge, and representing what they know to others" (Jonassen, 1994, p. 2). An important use of technology is its capacity to create new opportunities for curriculum and instruction by bringing real-world problems into the classroom for students to explore and solve. Technology can help to create an active environment in which students not only solve problems, but also find their own problems. This approach to learning is very different from the typical school classrooms, in which students spend most of their time learning facts from a lecture or text. Learning through real-world contexts is not a new idea. For a long time, schools have made sporadic efforts to give students concrete experiences through field trips, laboratories, and work-study programs. But these activities have seldom been at the heart of academic instruction, and they have not been easily incorporated into schools because of logistical constraints and the amount of subject material to be covered. Technology offers powerful tools for addressing these constraints, such as databases, expert systems, video conferencing and which can be used by students to analyze subject matter, develop representative mental models, and then transcribe them into knowledge bases (Jonassen, 1994; Jonassen & Carr, 2000; Jonassen & Reeves, 1996). The advantages of incorporating computer technology in education is that it can greatly enhance the learning process. It can be of valuable assistance in modeling complex and abstract processes, teaching problem solving, and drilling on basic skills. It can be an equalizer in the voice of the student; thereby enhancing the ability of special needs students to communicate. Furthermore it can improve skills in group interaction, shared knowledge, analyzing and studying information. Technology supports exploration, which helps students set achievable goals, and to make discoveries of their own (Collins, 1990). This type of environment emphasizes reflection and discussion with peers that aid in the construction of knowledge (Rodriguez, 1996; Valde et al., 1996). Dwyer (1996, p24) states that "significant and mounting evidence shows that technology improves students' mastery of basic skills, test scores, writing, and engagement in school”. The use of technology may also help address the cognitive, social, and motivational needs of students (Kozma & Chroninger, 1992). These factors may underlie evidence that suggests that technology use may be especially valuable to low-achieving students. Furthermore technology can help teachers address the issue of different learning styles by providing different types of software to enhance different learning environments. However technology education is itself a newly emerging field of study, and "there is a level of confusion about what "technology education is," and often a "lack of coherence" in the instructional activities offered under technology education" (Raizen, Sellwood., 1995, p. 3). Though the reasons for using technology in the classroom are compelling, it would be foolhardy to suggest that technology is a panacea for improving educational achievement or that implementing technology in the classroom is an easy process. Many teachers now have access to an unprecedented amount of instructional technology in their classrooms. However, there is little evidence showing that teachers integrate technology within the curriculum on a regular basis. The role of the classroom teacher is the crucial factor in the full development and use of technology in the schools (Office of Technology Assessment, 1995; Trotter, 1999). Yet, many teachers do not have the technical knowledge or skills to recognize the potential for technology in teaching and learning. Just knowing how to use a computer is not enough, instead, teachers must become knowledgeable about technology and self confident enough to integrate it effectively in the classroom. Before teachers can successfully implement technology, they need a change in their pedagogy. Such change requires a paradigm shift from viewing their role as a giver of knowledge to a facilitator of knowledge (Dexter, Anderson, & Becker, 1999). The role of the teacher as a facilitator is seen as most important in a constructivist context (Witfelt, 2000; Richards, 1998). Within a constructivist classroom, the teacher engenders social and intellectual climates, where collaborative and cooperative learning methods are supported. In parallel, technology-enhanced classrooms tap constructivist strategies (Jonassen, 1999), arranging problem-based projects where students actively construct knowledge, linking new knowledge with previous knowledge. The social quality of learning which involves communication, interaction, negotiation and sharing, was emphasized in the theoretical framework conceptualized by L.S. Vygotsky. He believed that a student can be brought up to a higher level of learning by showing graphic examples and by giving them real-life experiences relevant to their individual needs. This theory of 'teaching and learning' which drew attention to the role of language and the social, interactive nature of cognitive development, has far reaching implications for the development of teaching skills. The understanding of the importance of the teacher being 'on the growing edge of the child's competence', as described by Jerome Bruner (1986), is reflected in the ways in which he or she organizes and manages experiences and resources in the classroom. IT will not replace teachers, at least not effective teachers who see their role as encompassing more than being a 'knowledge base', providing input and feedback to correct responses. For example technology can aid teacher collaboration, instead of working in isolation, teachers can work together on school-wide programs. They can help find solutions to problems, act as peer advisors to provide information and feedback,/and collect data to test hypotheses (Lieberman, 1996; Little, 1982). Their new roles may involve distance collaboration with cross-school peer groups and study groups through telecommunications (Kosakowski, 1998) providing opportunities for teachers to become comfortable and effective in new roles. Children enter the classroom not only having used IT themselves in some way, but also being part of a society influenced by images of and anxieties about new technology. It is thus important that teachers are 'technologically literate', not only in terms of skills, but also in the understanding of the nature of technology and the ways in which it influences what children do in schools (the curriculum) and how teachers get them to do it (pedagogy). The main trend in education at present is not in development of technology tools/and applications, but carrying out research to determine the actual benefits of technology to student learning and performance. So far research seems to indicate that IT has not had the wide-spread effect in classrooms that was hoped. The difference in the quality of experience in using IT seems to be related to the understanding that the teachers have about the nature of the ways in which children learn and the nature of the area of the curriculum which is being addressed. There needs to be interplay between an understanding of the goals and of the variety of the ways in which pupils learn, through exploration, collaboration, guidance and explanation. An additional development in learning and technology is the use of Video Games in higher education. Computer games can stimulate users and encourage the development of social and cognitive skills. They can offer effective ways of reaching students who haven't responded to conventional teaching methods, and they can get gifted students to apply critical-thinking, problem-solving, and other higher-level skills to subjects they already know. Many believe games may be the key to "stealth education," whereby children are immersed in a world of fun that they do not realize they're also learning. The computer game SimCity is more than a decade old, and a generation of youth has grown up with "edutainment". Yet, we know very little about what they are learning playing these games. Furthermore there are controversies over whether or not sim games and civilization-building games are teaching anything about history or urban planning. Games such as SimCity depict social bodies as complex dynamic systems and embody concepts like positive feedback loops that are central to systems thinking. Are there any educational benefits of these games? One way to produce more meaningful educational games would be to design games in which players are engaged in richer, more meaningful practices. A game like Civilization III, which involves analyzing geography in order to determine the best geographic location for a city, negotiating trade deals with other civilizations, and making taxation and social spending decisions, comes closer to the kind of meaningful practices educators would like to produce. In short, playing Civilization might be a tool that can assist students in understanding social studies, but playing the game is not necessarily participating historical, political, or geographical analysis. Even in a game as rich as Civilization Ill, there is very good reason to believe that students may not use their understandings developed in the game - such as the political importance of a natural resource like oil - as tools for understanding phenomena outside the game, such contemporary foreign policy. If we accept that there are social, intellectual and pedagogical reasons for using IT in education, we need to develop an understanding of how to use IT effectively and appropriately in these contexts. What is now known about learning provides important guidelines for uses of technology that can help students and teachers develop the competencies needed for the twenty-first century. The new technologies provide opportunities for creating learning environments that extend the possibilities of "old"--but still useful--technologies--books; blackboards; and linear, one-way communication media, such as radio and television shows--as well as offering new possibilities. Technologies do not guarantee effective learning, however. Inappropriate uses of technology can hinder learning--for example, students' failure to develop basic problem solving and critical thinking abilities is being recognised as a major educational impediment. This problem has been the focus of national attention. Educational thinking about technology has focused too much on controversial either-or questions: Should computers replace books, or even teachers? Whether technology should be used in schools is no longer the issue in education. Instead, current emphasis should be made on ensuring that technology is used effectively to create new opportunities for learning and to promote student achievement. Educational technology is not, and never will be, transformative on its own. However it requires the assistance of educators who integrate technology into the curriculum, align it with student learning goals, and use it for engaged learning projects. "Teacher quality is the factor that matters most for student learning," note Darling-Hammond and Berry (1998). Therefore, professional development for teachers becomes the key issue in using technology to improve the quality of learning in the classroom. My argument is that each medium (the teacher most of all) has its own distinctive contribution to make to education and to cognitive development and that technology should be used in complimentary fashion in a process of multimedia education. In general, technology-based tools can enhance student performance when they are integrated into the curriculum and used in accordance with knowledge about learning (e.g., see especially White and Frederiksen, 1998). But the mere existence of these tools in the classroom provides no guarantee that student learning will improve; they have to be part of a coherent education approach. For all these reasons, we should move toward a system of multimedia education in which audio, video and computer technologies will surely play a key role. By giving each medium- the old ones as well as the new- its place in a child's life and education, each medium will be able to make its own special contribution to children's learning and development. Paragraph on Group Assignment It was interesting to work with group members who I wouldn't necessarily choose myself. Personally I felt that the assignment was a pleasant surprise and found it easy to carry out the task without too many problems arising. We even used technology in the form of Instant messenger and email to collaborate on the task due to the fact that I was out of the country for a week. Our group found it easier to split the Coursework up allowing group members to focus on separate parts, thus sharing the workload between us. I feel by working with the different people it gave me an opportunity to look at how other people approach tasks and team work. I also found that it produces collective ideas and a wider variety of knowledge. I do however believe that when you choose your own group they are usually people you respect and trust and therefore find it easier to criticise or find fault with, which allows for things to be altered and improved if someone doesn't agree. 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