Fuller, (1980) found that a sample of lower-class black girls in London distanced themselves from Black-Caribbean boys because they had high aspirations for themselves and did not want to be ridiculed or held back by them. Statistics demonstrate that Black-Caribbean boys are failing in school and one must question why? (Gilborn & Mirza, 2000)
Wright, (1985) concludes in his study how African-Caribbean pupils and their white teachers nurture a volatile, hostile relationship bordering on discipline enforcement rather than that of praise. This relationship creates a lack of enthusiasm and an aversion to learning. Mac and Ghaill, (1988) believe that schools are deficient and under-representative of black teachers. Ross, (2002) supports this claim maintaining the significance of ethnic minority teachers. Because we are part of a diverse population encompassing an extensive range of cultures, customs, languages, faiths and beliefs, the teaching profession must accommodate all.
Phillips as cited in Jasper, (2005) supports the claim that Black and Asian people are underrepresented in every aspect and therefore for black boys to achieve in our education system it is paramount that black teachers require a more prominent status acting as role models who can relate to individuals allowing pupils to feel acknowledged and valued in an attempt to break the cyclical effect. Mamon, (2004) supports this argument believing that Black children tend to be perceived as a homogeneous group of low achievers and as undisciplined troublemakers. Regrettably, this develops into a self-fulfilling prophecy to fail, as pupils live up to the negative expectations of the teachers. Low esteem results from ‘lack of teacher attention’ and therefore there is a need for black teachers to work in the more challenging areas to meet the needs of Black pupils. (Ibid)
Bhattacharyya et al, (2003) highlighted how Black-Caribbean pupils are three times more likely to face school expulsion and statistics show a high percentage of these pupils to be segregated into specialised units in an attempt to avoid expulsion and to raise achievement. Furthermore, the chairman of the Commission for Racial Equality, (2002) lobbied towards the segregation of Black pupils following claims that the education system was in a state of crisis and desperate measures were needed in order to raise achievement. Phillips as cited in Muir, (2005) strongly disagrees with segregating pupils stating this it-self to be stigmatising and racist.
The Swann Report, (1985) took into account evidence from six LEA’s showing a high Ethnic-Minority presence. The evidence concluded that in examinations West Indian Children on average faired poorly in comparison to their white peers, however Asian children achieved as well as their white peers with the exception of White-English pupils. Research by Gilborn and Mirza, (2000) revealed that Black pupils begin school with high achievement levels, on average their attainment is 20% above average but during the course of time in comparison to other ethnic groups, faired the worst, leaving school trailing 21% behind other pupils. (See figure 1). This dramatic slump has been blamed on institutional racism within education. (Holloway, 2004) It is easy to quote that ‘Black-Caribbean children underachieve failing in our educational system,’ however is it not the underachievement of the educational system that is failing these children?
Gillborn and Mirza, (2000) discovered that Bangladeshi and Pakistani pupils start school lower than any other group, however they improve throughout their education. A final report carried out three years later found that West Indian pupils had shown a slight improvement and it was hoped that this was down to progression in social and educational integration.
Figure 1.
Source: Gilborn and Mirza, (2000)
Verma et al, (1994) described how Indian and Asian children appeared to excel in their education. This could be due to the high expectations projected by the Asian community and the active support they offer their children which accounts for their high attainment levels, furthermore the support derives from middle-class families where there is a long established higher education network.
Mac an Ghaill, (1988) found that the African-Caribbean community to be extremely enthusiastic towards educational achievement however unlike the Asian community relatively few African-Caribbean possess the experience and tradition of seeking higher education which is reflective of their social class. Furthermore there is high proportion of lone parent families in the African-Caribbean community, which impacts on practical issues such as the time and money required to support their child’s education.
Gillborn, (1990) advocates sensitivity and awareness towards a cultural bias in the curriculum. Multi-cultural approaches to teaching enhance the learning experience. Black children should be evidently apparent in books; if such books are not available then by utilising westernised biased resources children are able to judiciously discuss the term ‘White British Cultural Superiority.’ OFSTED claim this approach, is becoming known as ‘critical multiculturalism.’ (OFSTED, 2000 b).
The ATL, (1998) supports this practice by endorsing the use of books and materials which display ethnic groups allowing children to explore and discuss other cultural identities through creative work. Such practice provides children with the ability to recognise the impact and influence that minority groups have on other cultures. Children should also be made aware of migration movements of human beings, recognising that migration is not unique to ethnic minority cultures. For example the impact of the migration and settlement of the Romans, Vikings, Saxons and Normans (The DfEE/QCA, 1999)
Lupton, (2004) believes that in order to allow children to feel equal and included, schools should adopt a variety of compensatory measures such as organising pastoral care and outings such as holidays and educational visits, thus broadening children’s educational experiences.
The Citizen Foundation, (1994) provides a range of resources in order to represent racism and inappropriate behaviour one of which is a simple but succinct story about a Traveller boy named Farouk who feels completely isolated at school because his cultural and linguistic abilities differ from his peers. Stories such as this can be used in PSHE lessons to educate children’s minds towards institutionalised racism and to demonstrate drama activities. Clipson-Boyles, (1998) believes Drama can provide the most powerful tool in education enabling children to experience feelings and emotions, offering children a release via expression and presentation, thus bringing language alive.
Massey, (1991) describes how the lack of training and support that a teacher encounters, can influence what is described as ‘tokenistic’ teaching. For example a lesson, which concentrates on African-Caribbean Steel bands, Indian celebrations or typical Indian dress, can be viewed as ‘tokenistic,’ portraying a ‘saris and samosas’ approach to inclusion. Majors, (2001) agrees with this view pointing out that many black parents and teachers have viewed the introduction of Steel bands into the curriculum as a trivialisation of the African-Caribbean culture and history.
Furthermore Cline et al, (2002) interviewed many teachers and the conclusion was that very few possessed the knowledge or confidence needed to inform their teaching of issues relating to a multicultural education.
OFSTED, (2000a) categorise ‘climate and ethos’ as one of its main inspection areas. This encompasses class inequality or social class issues within the school community and in order to create a culturally inclusive school, LEA’s must work closely with Head teachers, Governors, pupils and parents.
Gibson and Asthana, (1998) believe that poverty and attainment are closely linked, stating that if a school is attached to a social disadvantaged community then it is highly likely that the school will underachieve.
Poverty presents immeasurable barriers towards a child’s education due to lack of resources and often parents are unable to afford the school uniform. Many children suffer humiliation feeling socially excluded due to insensitive approaches to comments regarding free school meals (FSM). Furthermore many working class parents work unsociable hours and many simply do not have the educational knowledge to pass on to their children. (ibid). OFSTED, (2000a) discovered that many schools associated with FSM were associated with low attainment, often these families had little or no income to support their children
A major research of UK schools carried out in disadvantaged areas focused on ‘successful and improving schools,’ in order to identify what they were doing well (OFSTED 1993, NCE1996). The study revealed that exemplary schools in deprived areas appeared to overcome the problems of a disadvantaged perspective, as a result of good leadership and teaching skills. .
Gibbons, (2001) describes that in order to combat differential social class problems in the classroom many teachers stream their pupils into ability groups in order to generate a feeling that pupils are equal. By doing this pupils are able to learn at their own pace and teachers are able to specialise and concentrate on teaching pupils of a ‘set’ ability. However there are potential disadvantages towards streaming by ability groups, teachers quite often have lower expectations towards pupils who achieve less well. In addition these children lack the skills required to work unsupervised and tend to antagonise each other, nuturing a feeling of lack of encouragement and incentive. Consequently teachers offer more encouragement and concentrated time towards the higher achieving pupils. (Harlen and Malcolm, 1997)
Harlen and Malcolm, (1997) enforce that set-ability grouping can introduce detrimental social effects to the child and therefore it is more beneficial for pupils to be centred within mixed-ability groups.
Lupton, (2004) carried out extensive research in four British schools, two of them with a recent history of low attainment and FSM’s. Both schools describe two different views towards setting. The schools introduced completely different strategies which they believed would maximise learning for pupils of low academic ability.
Southside Grange School in North-east England advocated mixed-ability setting and mixed-ability teaching was seen as an essential element in allowing pupils to feel that they were valued and equal. Totten et al, (1991) share this view believing there is persuasive evidence that collaboratively, mixed-ability learning achieves greater knowledge retention. Research carried out by Gokhale, (1995) concluded that collaborative learning fosters critical thinking through discussion and evaluation.
Farcliffe School in the South-east of England abolished the practice of setting pupils into ability groups, the Head believed that branding pupils as lower-ability created a sense of low self-esteem which was completely unacceptable. Harlen and Malcolm, (1997) share this view indicating that children are fully aware of the attainment group they are working in whether it is low average or high-ability and can feel stigmatised and de-motivated. The effect can be detrimental as the opportunity for achievement fast diminishes as the children who are ‘set’ as lower ability find it difficult to progress into higher attainment groups. ,
Despite promoting equal and culturally inclusive classrooms Boaler, (1997) believes that in an last bid attempt to produce academic success, the Government is in fact returning to ‘setting’ the practice branded as failing in previous years, which is unfairly geared towards higher achieving pupils.
Cullingford, (1995) states that from birth both boys and girls are invariably treated differently. For example from early on perhaps without intention, ‘innocent racism’ rears its head. Boys are asked to stack the classroom chairs, whilst girls tidy the books and classroom. Research delivered by the Equal Opportunities Commission, (2002) publicised how children develop clear ideas about the roles of men and women even before starting school. Often parents, teachers and the media influence these conceptions. As a result, subject and career choices can be shaped from an early age.
Stanworth, (1983) describes how a formal commitment to equality of opportunity does not guarantee that a teacher treats girls and boys in such ways that both have equal chances of succeeding in that teacher's classroom. Indeed, the evidence is overwhelmingly that teachers both male and female discriminate in their treatment of boys and girls in educationally significant ways. Levine & Orenstein, (1994) support this claim believing that from birth boys are considered to be more privileged because they are important and powerful and are continually moulded towards the male ‘breadwinner’ image. Conversely it is thought that girls are valued for their outward looks, and their compliance and deferment towards a male dominated society thus denying them of the knowledge, diversity and complexity within each gender type. Love, (1993).
Gender stereotyping is forever evident in schools today and the responsibility lies with teachers to enforce and model inter-gender relationships discouraging stereotypical role models of the past. (Ibid). Harlen and Malcolm, (1997) claim that many teachers choose to group pupils not by educational ability but by friendship groups, ‘boys with boys’ and ‘girls with girls’, thus maintaining gender barriers.
The Human Rights Correspondence School, (1) believes that single-sex and mixed-sex groups play valuable roles in education. Single-sex female groups can often enhance the self-confidence of female pupils encouraging them to try non-traditional activities. In addition mixed-gender groups encourage cross-gender friendships and reduce gender-specific curriculum preferences such as the stereotypical image that girls enjoy reading fairytales and dancing and boys love getting their hands dirty.
Gipps and Murphy, (1994) outline the possible cause why there is differential attainment between boys and girls and that it could lie in bias of assessment. For example, one must question why if boys achieve less well in an examination than girls this is because boys are less able, or is the examination itself biased? Are there real differences in performance between the two genders? Gilborn and Mirza, (2000) state that gender is a significant factor and girls across all groups achieve a higher percentage of higher grade GCSEs.
Trew, (1998) revealed how boys and girls approach assessment tasks in different ways. For example, girls appear to excel in essay writing and course work and less well at multiple-choice questions where boys far exceed girls. Since the introduction of the National Curriculum in the 1980’s and the change towards all pupils studying English, Maths and Science, gender inequalities related to the subjects have been eradicated. Girls now achieve as well as if not better than boys in most subjects. (EOC, 2002)
To sum up, one must remember that all children are entitled to fair, non-discriminatory assessment where the assessment criteria should enable pupils from all cultural backgrounds, to demonstrate their proficiency and competence. Regardless of skin colour or gender, pupils should be assessed fairly and treated equally as individual human beings during their time in school. Assessments should respect multiple cultures and perspectives and by no means should any child be unfairly disadvantaged. If African-Caribbean boys fail in our system, boys fair less well than girls, and children of lower class achieve less well than other socio-economic groups, then should we question if traditional testing and assessment is biased and unfair to minority students.
In view of assessment it is difficult to find any documentation regarding assessment of ethnic groups, gender types or different social groups, therefore one can only anticipate and assume that assessment strategies are being put into place.
Society must attempt to engage all cultures, it should not be assumed that because a child’s first language is not English that he or she should be stigmatised and assumed a low-attainer. We should not assume because a child lives in an area of poverty or deprivation that he or she must without a doubt be a child of lower-ability. Every teacher should hold high expectations for all pupils and create an environment in which there is room for debate encouraging a supportive atmosphere for pupils to question a diverse range of views. (QCA, 2001)
It is our duty as teachers to make every child feel proud of their nationality, faith, colour and culture and to use education as a tool to educate chldren’s minds positively towards a multi-cultural world. A statement cited in the Bullock Report, (1975) concludes this assignment.
'No child should be expected to cast off the language and culture of the home as he crosses the school threshold, nor to live and act as though school and home represent two totally separate and different cultures which have to be kept firmly apart.' (DES, 1975:286).
Word Count: 3297
References
Alibhai-Brown, Y. (1999) True Colours : Attitudes to Multiculturalism and the Role of the Government. London: Institute for Public Policy Research
ATL. (1998) Racial Equality in Schools. London: ATL
Bhattacharyya, G. Ison, L., and Blair, M. (2003) Minority Ethnic Attainment and Participation in Education and Training. The Evidence. (DfES research topic paper) Nottingham: HMSO
Blaut, J. Prof. (1992) 'The Theory of Cultural Racism', Antipode: A Radical Journal of Geography, 23, p 289-299. Available online at: mdcbowen.org/p2/rm/theory/blaut.htm. Accessed 16 November 2005
Boaler, J. (1997) Setting, Social Class and Survival of the Quickest.
British Educational Research Journal, 1997, 23 (5) 575-595
Chan, S., East, P., Ali, S and Neophytou, M. (2002) ‘Primary and Secondary Education in England and Wales: From 1944 to the Present Day’. Available online at: http://learning.unl.ac.uk/education/Education%20V2.pdf. Accessed 20 November 2005
Clipson-Boyles, S. (1998) Drama in Primary English Teaching. London: David Fulton Publishing.
Cullingford, C. (1995) The Effective Teacher. London: Cassell
DES (1975) A Language for Life (Bullock Report). HMSO.
DfEE/QCA, (1999) The National Curriculum, Handbook for Primary Teachers in England. London, QCA
DfES, (2003) Aiming High: Raising the Achievement of Minority Ethnic Pupils. Nottingham: DfES Publications
DfES, (2004) Aiming High: Understanding theEducational Needs of Minority Ethnic Pupils in Mainly WhiteSchools - A Guide to Good Practice. Nottingham: DfES Publications
Education for Race Equality. Definitions and Glossary. Available online at: . Accessed 16 November 2005
Equal Opportunities Commission, (2002) Women and Men in Britain:Sex stereotyping: from school to work. Available online at: http://www.eoc.org.uk/PDF/wm_sex_stereotyping.pdf. Accessed 08 December 2005
Fuller, M (1980) Black girls in a London comprehensive school. In: Deem, R (Ed) Schooling for Women's Work. Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Gibson, A. and S. Asthana (1998) School Performance, School Effectiveness
and the 1997 White Paper. Oxford Review of Education 24(2): 195-210
Gipps, C & Murphy, R (1994) A Fair Test? Assessment, Achievement and Equity. Buckingham: Open University Press.
Gillborn, D. (1990) ‘Race’ Ethnicity & Education. Teaching and Learning in Multi-Ethnic Schools. London: Unwin Hyman
Gillborn, D. & Mirza, H. S. (2000) Educational Inequality: Mapping Race, Class and Gender. London: OFSTED
Gokhale, A. A. (1995) Collaborative Learning Enhances Critical Thinking: Journal of Technology Education Vol. 7 No. 1, Fall 1995
Harlen, W., & Malcolm, H. (1999) Setting and Streaming: SCRE Publication 143. SCRE: Glasgow
Holloway, L. (2004) Black Information Link. Helping Our Kids Make the Grade. Available online at: http://www.blink.org.uk/pdescription.asp?key=4400&grp=7&cat=367. Accessed 28 November 2005
Jasper, L. (2005) Trevor Phillips is in danger of giving succour to racists. Available online at: http://www.guardian.co.uk (http://www.guardian.co.uk/comment/story/0,3604,,00.html. Accessed 22 November, 2005
Levine, E. Z. & Orenstein, F. M. (1994) Sugar and Spice and Puppy Dog Tails: Gender Equity among Middle School Children. Eric No: ED389457. Available online at: http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2/content_storage_01/0000000b/80/23/d9/79.pdf. Accessed 16 November 2005
Lareau, A. (1987), ‘Social Class Differences in Family/School Relationships –
The Importance of Cultural Capital’, Sociology of Education 60 (1): 73-
85
Love, R. (1993) Gender Bias in Journal: Inequities in the Classroom. 20 (2). 8,11-12.
Lupton, R. (2004) Schools in Disadvantaged Areas: Recognising Context and Raising Quality. CASE paper 76. London: CASE
Mac an Ghaill, M. (1988) Young, gifted and black : student-teacher relations in the schooling of black youth. Milton Keynes: Open University Press
Macpherson, W. et al (1999) The Stephen Lawrence Inquiry: report of an inquiry by Sir William Macpherson of Cluny London, The Stationery Office
Majors, J. (2001) Educating Our Black Children: New Directions & Radical Approaches. (Ed) London: RoutledgeFalmer
Mamon, S. (2004) Mapping the Attainment of Black Children in Britain. Race & Class, Vol. 46, No. 2, 78-91
Massey, I. (1991) More Than Skin Deep : Developing Anti-Racist Multicultural Education in Schools. London: Hodder & Stoughton
Montgomery, W. (2000). Teaching Exceptional Children, Multicultural Education, Vol. 33, No. 4, Pp. 4-9.
Mullard, C. (1982) Multi-racial education in Britain: from assimilation to cultural
pluralism, in J. Tierney (Ed.) Race, Immigration and Schooling. London: Holt
International.
Muir, H. (2005) CRE Chairman Defends Call for Separate Classes. The Guardian Online. Available online at: http://education.guardian.co.uk/schools/story/0,5500,1432717,00.html . Accessed 29 November 2005
National Statistics (2002) GCSE Results by Sex and Ethnic Group. Available online at: . Accessed 20 November 2005
NCE (1996), Success Against the Odds – Effective Schools in Disadvantaged
Areas. London: Routledge
OFSTED (2000 a) Improving City Schools. London: OFSTED
OFSTED (2000 b) Evaluating Educational Inclusion; Guidance for Inspectors and Schools. London: OFSTED
OFSTED (1993), Access and Achievement in Urban Education. London:
OFSTED
Oxford Dictionary. (2003) Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford: Oxford University Press
Plowden, B (1967), Children and their Primary Schools: A report of the Central
Advisory Council for Education. London: HMSO
QCA, (2001) Respect for all: valuing diversity and challenging racism through the curriculum. Available online at: http://www.qca.org.uk/8859.html. Accessed 03 December 2005
QCA, (2004 ) Responding to pupils' needs when teaching history; Improving access to the history curriculum. Available online at: http://www.qca.org.uk/7892.html. Accessed 03 December 2005
Rex, J. (1989) Equality of Opportunity, Multi-culturalism, Anti-racism and Education for All. Verma, G. K. (Ed) Education for all – A landmark in Pluralism, Lewes: The Falmer Press
Ross, A. (2002) Towards a Representative Profession: Teachers from the Ethnic Minorities. Institute for Policy Studies in Education, London Metropolitan University
Sammons, P., J. Hillman, et al. (1995), Key Characteristics of Effective Schools;
A review of school effectiveness research. London: OFSTED
Sammons, P. (1999), School Effectiveness: Coming of Age in the 21st Century.
Abingdon: Swets and Zeitlinger
Stanworth, M. (1983) Gender and Schooling. London: Hutchinson
The Hillgate Group, (1989) Learning to Teach. London : Claridge Press
The Human Rights Correspondence School (a) Lesson II: Gender Role Stereotyping in Education. Available online at: http://www.hrschool.org/doc/mainfile.php/lesson12/106/. Accessed 22 November 2005
Rampton Report, 1981. West Indian Children in our Schools: The Report of the Committee of Inquiry into the Education of Children from Ethnic Minority Groups, HMSO, London.
The Swann Report, (1985) Education for All; A brief guide to the main issues of the Report. London: HMSO
The Commission for Racial Equality, (1999) The Stephen Lawrence Inquiry. Available online at: http://www.cre.gov.uk/gdpract/cj_sli.html. Accessed 30 November 2005
Citizen Foundation (1994) A Friend for Farouk
Available online at: http://www.citizenshipfoundation.org.uk/lib_res_pdf/0106.pdf. Accessedd 29 November 2005
Totten, S., Sills, T., Digby, A., & Russ, P. (1991). Cooperative learning: A guide to research. New York: Garland
Verma, G., Zec, P., and Skinner, G. (1994) The Ethnic Crucible: Harmony and Hostility in Multi-Ethnic schools. London: Falmer Press
Wright, C. (1985) ‘Who succeeds in school and who decides.’ in Gilborn, D. (1990) Race, Ethnicity and Education – Teaching and Learning in Multi-Ethnic Schools. London: Unwin Hyman
Local Education Authorities
OFSTED - Office for Standards in Education
LEA’S – Local Education Authorities
