The Writing Game.

University Degree Education and Teaching

Foundation Degree in Children & Young People Learning

The Writing Game

The art of communication, listening and speaking, reading and writing, embrace the tools necessary for all learning. These skills are taught from the earliest years, not merely as academic exercises but as essential aspects of life. The four elements of communication cannot be taught has isolated subjects, they work together to build language skills and must be integrated if children are to learn. Furthermore reading and writing are not structured as solitary acts, but rather develop in collaborative efforts in a community of learners (Zebroski, 1994). The National Literacy Strategy (1998) endorses this in describing literacy as uniting the ‘important skills of reading and writing….involving speaking and listening which, although not separately identified in the framework, are an essential part of it’. Though many believe the National Literacy Strategy (NLS) has made a difference to standards in literacy overall in many schools because it focuses on shared reading and writing and the teaching of small groups. Improvements in the quality of writing have, according to many, not been as noticeable as those in other areas of literacy since the introduction of the strategy. Office for Standards in Education (Ofsted) believed that whilst the NLS entered its third year the quality of writing had shown a steady improvement;

‘Test results for 11 year olds in writing has improved, but attainment in writing is still to low and lags well behind attainment in reading. The fall in standards of reading this year, albeit slight, may reflect teachers’ increased focus on writing’

OFSTED 2001

Work has continued in this area to further improve the writing skills in primary and secondary schools. The NLS gave teachers tools to help with the progression of literacy, although non-statutory, the majority of schools are using the ‘Literacy Hour’ as a means of teaching. The literacy hour encourages knowledge and understanding about language and offers a framework for looking at books and resources at text, sentence and word level.

Over the past decade a major influx of materials to help schools approach the issue of writing, and the difficulties some children have in this area of literacy, have been introduced into schools. Teachers remain perplexed about the most effective forms to scaffold their pupils’ progress. New schemes are continually been introduced into schools to address such problems to give further support to areas of weakness. One of the more recent publications from the Department for Education (DfEE) is ‘Grammar for Writing’ published in 2000. This publication provides additional resources for teaching key stage two sentence level objectives, additionally, promoting the idea of shared writing. However, this comes with much debate amongst researchers. The practice of teaching grammar was officially removed from teaching in schools following ‘The Lockwood Report’ (1964) because it was failing to raise standards. Though, further studies carried out more recently have protested the importance of inspiring learners’ curiosity which Evans 2001 believes provides them with the useful metalanguage with which to talk about the subject. Carter (1990) firmly advocates that ‘emphasis on error detection and the superiority of standard English pathologised everyday language and alienated pupils who spoke non-standard varieties’. Much of the criticisms of grammar raised during the sixties have been challenged, therefore the reintroduction through the NLS has proved a success so far by many.

Writing is essential as much for building up knowledge, as equipping children for their future as workers and citizens, appropriating a culture, and exercising the freedom of the citizen. Yet it represents a cognitive activity, all the more difficult to manage and to learn for pupils, since today's school systems which value the oral and visual image no longer create the motivation that is necessary to incorporate the cognitive process. Therefore more demanding cognitively, particularly exercising the control necessary to implement the different operations needed planning, writing, revision, teaching pupils the necessary learning skills, and also to develop the motivation ...

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Writing may be equated with spelling, sentence linking, and punctuation, in a much broader perspective; literacy is seen as a set of practices acquired by children through their participation in certain kinds of socio-cultural activities. Such activities, centre on the reading of texts. Indeed, according to this perspective, literacy learning is comprised of the conversations that are carried out between an adult and a child on the books they read, either in school or at home. By commenting on these books in socio-culturally specific ways, adults gradually introduce children into the strategies required for the presentation of meaning into the form of a text. Consequently, Haneda & Wells, 2000, state that the development of children's writing has its roots in their social interaction with other more competent members of the society through various meaningful, purposeful activities.

Within the classroom factors that may be effective in supporting writing begin with reading aloud, this helps children begin to acknowledge the role of the language and different styles of texts they will be introduced to. Generating ideas about texts read in a whole class or group sessions, involving detailed discussions to help with planning. Whilst children are beginning the process of individual work, the intervention of teachers and responses during the process, including the reading out loud of children’s work, all play a major part in developing competency and fluency. Practice has proved this to be effective. An assembly including parents held every Friday within the workplace encourages children to present pieces of work that have been completed throughout the week. These may take the form of a piece of independent writing, pictures, studies, performances poems/songs written, indeed anything that has taken place in class. Most children respond to this very well, by the time they are in key stage

two children are proficient at explaining details of their work to the

whole school, parents, grandparents and other members of the

community invited to join the school in celebrating the success of all the children.

In a literate society, children are immersed in a world of print. Children play with written language and weave it into activities such as drawing, speech, and play. As they grow older, children usually show an interest in writing if they have opportunities to observe other people writing and are invited to participate in literacy activities, such as making shopping lists and listening to bedtime stories (Bissex, 1980). Gradually, children realise that both oral and written languages are purposeful and meaningful activities (Bissex 1980; Garton & Pratt, 1998). They also interact with other more proficient writers in their learning environment. When children reach key stage two they are anticipated to have reached an expected level of attainment. Pupils at this stage should have the physical capabilities to write in a legible manner and have reached most of the knowledge, skills and understanding levels described in the national curriculum programme of study in key stage one. However, for beginning writers it is handwriting and spelling that provide the most serious constraints. The progress some children make can be inhibited with the preoccupation of technical accuracy and neatness. Once some control has been gained over the means of production, children are free to give attention to the composing process and write to the audience and by the specific genre in which they are working. It is through the various and rich literacy experiences that children become competent and creative members of a literate society.

Supporting pupils’ development of their written work by placing more emphasis upon meaning than correctness, by accepting children’s ideas about spelling, regardless of their accuracy, with a sound understanding of the development of the writing process, fosters that child’s autonomy.

Within the NLS new emphasis is put upon the direct teaching of writing. Strategies that provide support to all children, especially boys, such as shared reading and writing sessions, paired work and scaffolding are now well established and standards have been raised. The role of the teacher may vary between schools, and between teachers, however most follow the principles set out in the NLS guidelines.

Dependent on the stage of development the teacher may need to take an active role as scribe, enabling the children to compose to a greater extent than if they were writing themselves. Shared writing, an area encouraged in ‘Grammar for Writing’ 2000, where demonstrating and providing examples of writing, facilitating pupil’s to distinguish the structure and lay-out of pieces of writing including specific genres and audiences. Paired writing and independent writing, where the teacher becomes an observer, perhaps with the use of writing frames to provide initial support with the learning, eventually only to intervene where they feel necessary to enhance the writing process. Allowing children to collaborate in their writing further enhances the child’s independence.

Regardless of whether this is a political tool; the education system has to be responsive and legitimate to societal requirements. Through these shared sessions teachers are able to gather ideas collectively with the children whilst extending their thinking and directing them into extending their own ideas. Supporting the children in such a way helps them become more independent, allowing children to collectively plan a piece of writing enhances their knowledge of the way texts work for different audiences.

Boys’ opposition to writing has continued to be of particular concern. The first piece of evidence to support differences in gender achievement was reported by the Schools’ Inquiry Commission (1867) a great deal of research has been made since, searching for an explanation to the differences between the genders where writing is concerned. Reportedly over the previous four years the difference in writing attainment in Standard Assessment Tests (SAT’s) rose to a 15% difference between boys and girls (BBC News). The gap between boys and girls in this area is of national concern. Ofsted identified boys’ negative attitudes towards literacy as a whole in their 1993 report as an area for concern. Though many critics impart that it does not seem as though government celebrate the achievements of girls, as the worries were not so studied when girls were lagging behind the boys! However, Evans 2001 consider that while girls disposition overall towards reading and writing in school, particularly English work, whether these accomplishments will serve them equally well after school. This would suggest schools teach towards exam, rather than life skills. The SAT’s results of 2003 show a significant raise of achievements of boys writing skills generally. However, some schools feel this is more of a proof of the different tests used.

Many researchers indicate that themes for writing chosen by boys are narrow; White (1987) suggests that boys’ choices would include murder, adventure war, whereas girls choose to write to a much wider audience. Belief in boys’ disposition to the writing of non-fiction texts is over-generalised (Ofsted 1998). Where they favour non-fiction writing is when it allows them to write about their own interests in sports or hobbies. This factor has changed little since the Assessment of Performance Unit findings on boys’ writing 1979-83 and 1988 (Gipps and Murphy, 1994). Boys can be hostile towards writing, which is used by teachers to gauge what they have learnt or as a control mechanism. They do not see how such writing meets real purpose.

The growing gender gap was acknowledged by ministers as one of the most serious problems facing schools when Labour won the 1997 election. It announced a co-ordinated approach to challenge the ‘laddish’ anti-learning culture, which included a requirement for local authorities to tackle the issue and curriculum advice for teachers. The data derived from schools tests results are used in order to set effective targets and develop new strategies, giving teachers resources to help raise the achievements of all pupils’ particularly boys. However, experience has indicated that a one-off piece of work on a particular day is a limited reflection of the true status of children’s achievements and schools performance. Many argue that the results, government accept as a true reflection of the quality produced throughout the country, are used as a political instrument. The Essex Action Research Project brought to the attention that tackling boys’ underachievement and lack of motivation is closely linked to overall school improvement (Literacy Today, March 2001). This is true of the SAT’s results; the issue of behaviour may have an effect upon the overall performance of boys.

Achievement related behaviour, especially in schools can lead to mis-behaviour, low self esteem and low self motivation. Boys who respect their teachers perform better at school according to a new report from Ofsted entitled Yes He Can – Schools Where Boys Write Well;

These include valuing the quality of thought in writing that may be brief or untidy; avoiding excessively negative responses that increase frustration, while still setting high expectations; making targets for improvement clear and manageable; tackling handwriting and spelling early and thoroughly to support the development of fluency; and ensuring that a rich diet of reading is providing models for writing.

Ofsted: HMI 505

The established study by Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) of the ‘self-fulfilling prophecy’ could inadvertently be encouraged where teachers believe the stereotypical attitudes of some who believe ‘girls’ are brighter than boys’ and unwittingly pass this on to the children.

Development of intrinsic motivation is strongly dependent upon pupils’ competence. Possession of strategies and the motivation for using them is a key issue when exploring what goes on in the classroom. Children react to failure and negative feedback in different ways, therefore effective teaching is paramount to motivating boys and improving confidence. Children are taught to be independent and achievers (Winterbottom, 1958) and to fear failure (Teevan & McGhee, 1972). Being rewarded for striving increases in their achievement - motivates; being punished for unsatisfactory behaviour, and having successes disregarded,

leads to fear of failure. Emphasizing successes and using failures as targets to improve on could meet increases in children’s achievement motivation. Next, we begin to look for the development of self-esteem. Maslow noted two versions of esteem needs, a lower one and a higher one. The lower one is the need for the respect of others, the need for status, recognition, attention, and appreciation, even dominance. The higher form involves the need for self-respect, including such feelings as confidence, competence, achievement, independence, and freedom. The negative version of these needs is low self-esteem and inferiority complexes. In order to achieve this, children need to be given support and the opportunity to realise their potential, perhaps by the use of different medias. The Friday assembly held in school promotes both needs and therefore is an important aspect of the schools valuing the children’s achievements and raising their self-esteem.

Boys see ICT as a means of improving the presentation of their work, increasing self-confidence and overcoming teacher disapproval of untidy handwriting (Bleach, 1998). If children are to be encouraged to select relevant material, relate information to what they already know and write in a form that clearly demonstrates understanding, they need to be motivated. Writing for a known audience helps to motivate the writer to greater care with the planning and preparation and publication of their work. During task 3, (see appendix 2) evidence demonstrated that children are motivated when given a purpose, audience and reason for their work. Evans 2001, through her own research found that the use of computers greatly increased many children’s interest in writing and a combination of computer based writing coupled to a clear purpose was particularly productive. Another aspect of the teachers’ role is providing critical feedback in the form of marking. Results of the National Writing Project (1989) were positively received by most teachers, who used the findings to modify their marking. Indeed reports from teachers during this project reported the changes it had made

Since the beginning of the Writing Project I think the biggest change in my attitude to the children’s writing has been in the approach I take to marking. I now try to approach work with a much more positive way, looking for good points to praise rather than faults.

(Unnamed author)

The Writing Classroom

Evans. J 2001

Marking is seen as helping the teachers to focus their teaching and planning, whilst providing pupils with positive feedback and targets. Practice has revealed that by allowing children to write comments in their own books (see appendix 1) they also become part of the marking process. By allowing pupils to express how they felt about their own piece of work or the lesson they become a part of the whole process, motivating and building up their confidence and independency. A schools marking policy must be consistent with the positive recognition and made known to all who take part in marking. (see appendix 2)

In conclusion, it would appear that the ‘writing game’ is a multifaceted process, requiring the ability to use several skills simultaneously. Evidence suggests that reading develops further alongside writing, and the writing process is greatly enhanced when coupled with reading. Moreover, to bring a text to being, the writer has to address a reader who is presumed or imagined. The Bullock Report in 1975 acknowledged the importance of talk and discussion in the support of writing. The importance of being able to see the relationship between the four essential components of literacy; speaking, listening, reading and writing, give children a good basis for beginning their lives in a literate world.