Research conducted by Edward Deci, Professor of Psychology in the Social Sciences at the University of Rochester, indicates that extrinsic rewards can have a negative impact on intrinsic motivation. In one series of experiments, Edward Deci had two groups of college student’s play with a puzzle called Soma. One group of students was paid for each puzzle they solved, the other group was not. He found that the group that was paid to solve puzzles stopped solving puzzles as soon as the experiment and the payment had ended. However, the group that did not receive any payment for completing each puzzle kept solving the puzzles even after the experiment was over. They had found the puzzles intrinsically interesting. Deci argued that the group that had been paid to solve puzzles might have found the puzzles intrinsically interesting as well, but the extrinsic, monetary reward had reduced their intrinsic interest. However David Fontana, Professor of Psychology at the Cardiff University, argues that extrinsic motivators such as a good grade or educator approval are very often a necessary method of student motivation within the classroom. He suggests that not every lesson is going to completely satisfy and stimulate the student and intrinsic motivations will be insufficient. On such occasions rewards may be the best motivational option to ensuring student learning and success. (D. Fontana 1995. P149)
To truly motivate students a combination of extrinsic and intrinsic motivators might be the suitable approach. It is however, extremely important to understand how learning takes place to ensure motivational techniques used are best suited to the student. People have been trying to understand learning for over 2000 years. Learning theorists have carried out a debate on how people learn that began at least as far back as the Greek philosophers, Socrates (469 –399 B.C.), Plato (427 – 347 B.C.), and Aristotle (384 – 322 B.C). However, there are many different theories of learning that encompass the notion that learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour, with behaviour including both observable activity and internal processes such as thinking, attitudes and emotions. www.brookes.ac.uk
Almost all learning theory is derived from one or more of the following psychological schools of thought, behaviourist approach, cognitive approach and humanistic approach.
John B. Watson founded behaviourism in 1913. The theory of behaviourism concentrates on the study of overt behaviours that can be observed and measured. It views the mind as a "black box" in the sense that response to stimulus can be observed quantitatively (Smith. M. K. 1999). Some other key players in the development of the behaviourist theory were Pavlov, Thorndike and Skinner.
Edward Thorndike is considered by many to be the first modern education psychologist who sought to bring a scientific approach to the study of learning. Thorndike believed that learning was incremental and that people learned through a trial and error approach. His behaviourist theories of learning did not consider that learning took place as a result of mental constructs. Instead, he described how mental connections are formed through positive responses to particular stimuli. For Thorndike, learning was based on an association between sense impressions and an impulse to action. Thorndike favoured students’ active learning and sought to structure the environment to ensure certain stimuli that would produce learning. (Hilgard and Bower. 1975). Thorndike’s theory, Connectionism, stated that learning was the formation of a connection between stimulus and response, stimulus response learning theory.
B. F. Skinner further developed Thorndike’s stimulus response learning theory. Skinner argued that behaviour was caused by forces outside the person and was responsible for developing programmed learning which was based on his stimulus response research on rats and pigeons in experiments that provided positive reinforcement for “correct” responses. He considered learning to be the production of desired behaviours, and denied any influence of mental processes. Programmed learning gave proper reinforcement to the student, emphasized reward over punishment, moved the student by small steps through discrete skills and allowed the student to move at their own speed. Skinner, B. F. (1973)
Social learning theorists and psychologist Albert Bandura proposed what is known as social learning theory which has become possibly the most influential theory of learning and development. While rooted in many of the basic concepts of traditional behaviourist learning theories, Bandura believed that direct reinforcement could not account for all types of learning. His theory added a social element, arguing that people can learn new information and behaviours by watching other people. Bandura’s theory is also known as observational learning or modelling. Three groups of children watched a video where an adult was aggressive towards a ‘bobo doll’, the adult was either just seen to be doing this, was rewarded by another adult for their behaviour or were punished for it. Children who had seen the adult rewarded were found to be more likely to copy such behaviour. Bandura noted that external, environmental reinforcement was not the only factor to influence learning and behaviour. He described intrinsic reinforcement as a form of internal reward, such as pride, satisfaction, and a sense of accomplishment. This emphasis on internal thoughts and cognitions helps connect learning theories to cognitive developmental theories. While many textbooks place social learning theory with behavioural theories, Bandura himself describes his approach as a 'social cognitive theory’. Bandura's social learning theory has had important implication in the field of education with the importance of observation and imitation, these learners are motivated by expecting a reward after imitating the behaviour of a fellow student who has also received a reward. A student who observes a fellow student receiving praise for achieving high grades may strive to do the same with the expectation of experiencing the same or similar benefits. Today, both teachers and parents recognize the importance of modelling appropriate behaviours. Bandura suggests that his style of reinforcement can raise an individual's sense of self-efficacy for a particular task which, in turn, leads to higher levels of motivation. Bandura’s social learning theory has often been called a bridge between behaviourist and cognitive learning theories because it encompasses attention, memory and motivation.
Dissatisfaction with behaviourism’s strict focus on observable behaviour led educational psychologists, such as Jean Piaget and William Perry, to demand an approach to learning theory that paid more attention to what went on “inside the learner’s head.” They developed a cognitive approach that focused on mental processes rather than observable behaviour. Knowledge is seen as something that is actively constructed by learners based on their existing cognitive structures. Therefore, it is relative to their stage of cognitive development; understanding the learner's existing intellectual framework is central to understanding the learning process. Piaget argued that people are not “programmed animals” that merely respond to environmental stimuli, people are rational beings that require active participation in order to learn, and whose actions are a consequence of thinking. Changes in behaviour are observed, but only as an indication of what is occurring in the learner’s head. The cognitive approach uses the metaphor of the mind as a computer, information comes in, is being processed, and leads to certain outcomes. Unlike behaviourist learning theory, where learners are thought to be motivated by extrinsic factors such as rewards and punishment, cognitive learning theory sees motivation as largely intrinsic. Because it involves significant restructuring of existing cognitive structures, successful learning requires a major personal investment on the part of the learner (Perry, 1999, 54). Learners must face up to the limitations of their existing knowledge and accept the need to modify or abandon existing beliefs. Without some kind of internal drive on the part of the learner to do so, external rewards and punishments, such as grades, are unlikely to be sufficient.
Taking a different ideological approach, humanistic psychologists of the mid 20th century, such as Maslow and Rogers, challenged the behaviourist and cognitive perspectives by suggesting the existence of human needs that give rise to intrinsic motivation. The humanistic approach concentrated on subjective experience of human beings and viewed using quantitative methods in the study of the human mind and behaviour as misguided. Instead it seeks to understand human beings and their behaviour by conducting qualitative research.
Maslow felt as though behaviourist theories did not adequately capture the complexity of human behaviour. Maslow presented the idea that human actions are directed toward goal attainment. He believed that people are not just controlled by mechanical forces or insensible instinctual impulses, but must be understood in terms of human potential and that any given behaviour could satisfy several functions at the same time. (Herzberg, F, Mausner, B, & Snyderman, B. B. 1959). For instance, going to a pub could satisfy one’s needs for self esteem and for social interaction. (Maslow, 1987).
Maslow (1954) identified a hierarchy of needs that needed to be satisfied. He arranged these needs in a system of levels starting from the lowest going to the highest. These needs were arranged in a pyramid where the lowest needs had to be met first before meeting the highest needs. He divided these needs into seven categories where the lowest four comprised of the deficiency needs while the upper three comprised of the growth needs. He stated that it was mandatory to meet the deficiency needs before a person is motivated to meet the growth needs. Deficiency needs include emotional desires, belonging needs, safety and security needs. While the growth needs include the need to gain knowledge and understanding, self-actualization and aesthetic needs. Every person is capable and has the desire to move up the hierarchy toward a level of self-actualization. Unfortunately, progress is often disrupted by failure to meet lower level needs. Life experiences including divorce and loss of job may cause an individual to fluctuate between levels of the hierarchy. Maslow (1954) also noted that only one in ten people become fully self-actualized because our society rewards motivation primarily based on self-esteem, love and other social needs.
The growth of self-actualization (Maslow, 1962) refers to the need for personal growth that is present throughout a person’s life. For Maslow, a person is always “becoming” and never remains static. In self-actualization a person finds a meaning to life that is important to them.
I agree that this approach could work well with the more mature students and with those who have a genuine interest in the subject area. However with a group of students who are studying not through their own choice and who do not always show a willingness to learn, this method may not be ideal. The importance of having an understanding of different learning domains and theories is critical in order to apply the most suitable approach to the needs of a variety of students. Each social psychology theory seems to offer invaluable insight. It seems vital that educators can and should use a range of theories and domains to meet the range of needs that students may present with.
Maslow’s work has been criticised for its lack of scientific vigour due to the fact that it cannot objectively measure self actualisation. Clemmer and McNeil suggest that Maslow misses the point because he left people’s spiritual dimension out of the picture. They say that humans look for meaning in their lives and that meaning transcends any animalistic drives. In their words, “even starving people are not immune to the lure of higher values.” Think about van Gogh. So it may be suggested that humanism ignores the unconscious mind and the qualitative data is difficult to compare, the lessons for educators are real enough in motivating learners. It is therefore vital to support and challenge students whilst recognising that all learners are individuals and require a safe, comfortable and friendly environment for them to learn in. Creating a respectful, caring and intentionally inviting learning environment is the surest way to encourage student achievement (Purkey and Asp, 1988, 45).
Conclusion
To conclude, any successful educator should have a solid understanding of the different learning theories and models and, to some extent, should use all aspects of them without even realising. Within my own teaching the social learning approach is used as the learner must gain the knowledge and understanding of the specific subject in order to achieve the level of application. Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do. Fortunately, most human behaviour is learned observationally through modelling: from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviours are performed and on later occasion’s this information serves as a guide for action. (Bandura 1977: 22)
However the outcome is also determined by the syllabus which brings the behaviourist school of learning into the equation and according to the behaviourist theorist, Goodlad and Hirst (1989) “learning will be enhanced if a student’s correct response is rewarded, as the reward acts as a further stimulus towards more learning.” So as many of the courses currently run within the department are taught in modules, this allows the learners to experience successful completion frequently, therefore receiving praise often, which in turn motivates the learners into wanting to achieve more. The use of a prize as a reward to a learner who answers a question correctly is a simple example of the behavioural approach. This can also provide healthy competition between learners and can encourage other learners to attempt answering questions in order to reap the same benefits. It is fundamental to ensure that students are given the opportunity to achieve successfully.
Sessions need to make intellectual demands on the learners and activities need to be varied to both stimulate and motivate learners. As Maslow (1998) quotes ‘There is only one sure way of motivating learners and that is to ensure that their belonging, self esteem and self actualisation needs are nourished through the learning activities devised. These are the only go buttons’ Eupsychian Management, 1965; republished as Maslow on Management, 1998. A students needs to be provided with an environment that offers safety, support and acceptance. Furthermore, the students must be given the freedom to learn through exploration, experimentation and experiences. This allows the learner to direct their own learning, giving them some measure of choice in tasks and activities, encouraging them to take responsibility of their own learning experience, discouraging dependency.
Recommendations
NIACE’s survey on how adults like to learn shows the extent to which adults learn informally using a range of approaches and prefer to blend individual study with interacting with other people. .
Colleges should experiment and take risks, as some are already doing, such as Simmons College, who are using online and blended learning, tutor supported self study, peer mentoring, coaching and other ways of supporting learners for whom a timetabled, attendance based mode of learning is not suitable. Student engagement has greatly increased at this college due to their change in delivery methods. www.at.simmons.ac.uk. Multiple delivery platforms create different opportunities for students to interact within the course. A student centred approach, which is possible with the blended learning model, allows for options in which students can choose how they will interact with course content, each other and whilst completing assignments. Discussion participation, for example, may take place, and be assessed in the traditional classroom setting or through online discussion forums.
It is important for a learner to be able to identify, develop and communicate their qualities, skills, attitudes and opinions and to have the opportunity to gain knowledge, build confidence and self-esteem and make the most of their abilities all within a safe and supportive environment. Good motivational techniques help learners reflect on and understand their own values and attitudes. They identify and articulate feelings and emotions; learn and understand the best approach to managing new or demanding situations effectively and form and maintain valuable relationships with a wide range of people.
One of the major keys to motivation is the active involvement of students in their own learning. Standing in front of them and lecturing to them is a relatively poor method of teaching. It is better to get students involved in activities, group problem solving exercises, helping to decide what to do and the best way to do it, working with each other, or in some other way getting physically involved in the lesson. Attending to students needs is a primary method of keeping students interested and happy. Students' basic needs have been identified as survival, love, power, fun, and freedom. Attending to the need for power could be as simple as allowing students to choose from among two or three things to do, two or three different topics of discussion or activities.
Bibliography
Books
Bandura, A. (1977) Social Learning Theory, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Clemmer. J. & McNeil. A. (1988)The VIP Strategy: Leadership Skills for Exceptional Performance. Canada. Key Porter Books
Eupsychian Management, 1965; republished as Maslow on Management, 1998
Fontana, D. (1995) Psychology for Teachers, (3rd Edition). Hampshire: Palgrave Ltd
Herzberg, F, Mausner, B, & Snyderman, B. B. (1959) The motivation to work. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Hilgard, E.R. & Bower, G.H. (1975) Theories of Learning, (4th Edition). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Maslow, A. (1943) A Theory of Human Motivation. Psychological Review. New York: Harper and Row
Maslow, A. (1954) Motivation and personality. New York: Harper and Row
Maslow, A. (1968) Towards a Psychology of Being. New York: Van Nostrand
Maslow, A. (1970) Motivation and Personality. New York: Harper and Row
Maslow, A. (1987) Motivation and Personality (3rd Edition) New York: Harper and Row
McCombs. B. L & Miller. L. (2006) Learner-Centred Classroom Practices and Assessments: Maximizing Student Motivation, Learning, and Achievement.
McLean, A. (2009) Motivating Every Learner. London: Sage Publications
Perry, W. (1999) Forms of Ethical and Intellectual Development in the College Years. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Purkey, W. (1988) An Overview of Self Concept Theory for Counsellors. Michigan: Ann Arbour Ltd
Ryan, R. M & Deci, E. L. (2000) Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. New York: Plenum
Skinner, B. F. (1973) Beyond Freedom and Dignity. London: Penguin
Websites
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Smith, M. K. (1999) Andragogy, the encyclopaedia of informal education.
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