Having a shortfall in cognitive functioning and learning styles are characteristic of children with mental retardation. These characteristics can include poor memory, slow learning rates, attention problems, difficulty generalizing what they have learned, and lack of motivation (Heward, 2011, p.1).
Traumatic Brain Injury
In the United States, 1.4 million Americans have a brain injury every year (Brian & Spinal Cord.org, 2011, p. 1). According to The Mayo Clinic, “A traumatic brain injury is damage to the brain resulting in an injury” (Mayo Clinic Staff, 2011, p. 1). Heward (2009) states that a traumatic brain injury is,
“An acquired injury to the brain caused by an external physical force, resulting in total or partial functional disability or psychosocial impairment, or both, that adversely affects a child’s education performance. Traumatic brain injury applies to open or closed head injuries resulting in impairments in one or more areas, such as cognition; language; memory; attention; reasoning; abstract thinking; judgment; problem-solving; sensory, perceptual, and motor abilities; psychosocial behavior; physical functions; information processing; and speech” (p.459 – 460).
Traumatic brain injury usually results from a violent blow or jolt to the head that causes the brain to collide with the inside of the skull” (Mayo Clinic Staff, 2011, p. 1). There are two different kinds of traumatic brain injuries, the open head injury and the closed head injury. The open head injury occurs when the skull is penetrated by a bullet or a sharp object. The closed head injury occurs when the head hits an object that doesn’t move and the brain hits the inside of the cranium (Heward, 2009, p. 460).
According to Heward (2009) there are many different signs and effects of traumatic brain injury. These signs and effects can be broken up into three different categories, physical and sensory changes, cognitive changes and academic problems, and social, emotional, and behavioral problems. Some of the physical and sensory changes that can be present when someone has a traumatic brain injury include:
*“Chronic headaches, dizziness, light-headedness, nausea
*Vision and hearing impairments
*Alterations in the sense of taste, touch, and smell
*Sleep problems
*Stress-related disorders
*Poor body temperature regulation
*Recurrent seizure activity
*Poor coordination and balance
*Reduced speed of motor performance and precision of movement” (Heward, 2009, pg. 463).
Cognitive changes and academic problems that may be present in someone with a traumatic brain injury include:
*“Difficulty keeping up with discussions, instructional presentations, note taking
*Difficulty concentrating or attending to the task at hand
*Difficulty making transitions
*Inability to organize work and environment
*Problems in planning, organizing, pacing tasks and activities
*Extremely sensitive to distractions
*Tendency to perseverate; inflexible in thinking
*Impairments in receptive oral language
*Inability to perceive voice inflections or nonverbal cues
*Impairments in reading comprehension
*Impairments in expressive oral or written language” (Heward, 2009, pg. 463).
Social, emotional, and behavioral problems that may be present in someone with a traumatic brain injury include:
*“Chronically agitated, irritable, restless, or anxious
*Increased aggressiveness
*Impaired ability to self-manage; lowered impulse control; poor anger control
*Difficulty dealing with change; poor coping strategies
*May overestimate own ability
*Decreased insight into self and others; reduced judgment
*Decreased frustration tolerance; frequent temper outbursts and overreactions to events
*May talk compulsively and excessively
*Inability to take cues from the environment” (Heward, 2009, pg. 463).
Autism
According to the National Institute of Health (2011), “Autism is a developmental disorder that appears in the first three years of life, and affects the brain’s normal development of social and communication skills” (p. 1). Heward (2009) states that autism is, “A neurobehavioral syndrome marked by qualitative impairments of social interaction and communication, and by restricted, repetitive, and stereotyped patterns of behavior” (p. 257).
Causes of autism are still being researched, but there are probably a combination of factors that lead to autism. “Given the complexity of the disease, the range of autistic disorders and the fact that no two children with autism are alike, there are likely many causes” (Mayo Clinic Staff, 2011, p. 1). Genetic problems and environmental factors seem to play an involvement in causing autism, but to what extent is still unknown. In regards to genetic problems,
“A number of genes appear to be involved in autism. Some may make a child more susceptible to the disorder; others affect brain development or the way brain cells communicate. Still others may determine the severity of symptoms. Each problem in genes may account for a small number of cases, but taken together, the influence of genes may be substantial. Some genetic problems seem to be inherited, whereas others happen spontaneously” (Mayo Clinic Staff, 2011, p. 1).
In regards to environmental factors,
“Many health problems are due to both genetic and environmental factors, and this is likely the case with autism as well. Researchers are currently exploring whether viral infections and air pollutants, for example, play a role in triggering autism” (Mayo Clinic Staff, 2011, p. 1).
The characteristics of autism are on a wide spectrum because some of the children are severely affected while others are barely affected. Characteristics include impaired social relationships, communication and language deficits, intellectual functioning, unusual responsiveness to sensory stimuli, insistence on sameness and perseveration, ritualistic and unusual behavior patterns, severe problem behavior, and positive attributes and strengths of students with autism.
Severe Disabilities
Severe disabilities are characterized as children, “With significant disabilities in intellectual, physical, and/or social functioning” (Heward, 2009, p. 453). However, there isn’t one single right definition of severe disabilities. Usually, this includes students that have severe mental retardation, have multiple disabilities, deaf-blindness, severe emotional disturbance, and severe disabilities or health impairments.
Causes of severe disabilities can encompass everything from genetics to the environment. Sometimes there are just no explanations for why someone has a disability.
Characteristics of students with severe disabilities include social development, cognitive development, language development, and motor development. In regards to social development, students with severe disabilities find it difficult to interact with others or may be oblivious to others, neither initiate or respond to interactions, have a difficulty performing self-help activities, and may exhibit self-abusive acts or abusive behavior such as biting or scratching. Cognitive development may or may not be affected in some students, but in others they might not be able to respond to simple commands, identify shapes, colors, symbols, or words. Common problems of language development include delays in speech and language, speech clarity, and bizarre speech patterns. Students are often unable to communicate without grunts or shrieks. Motor development delays are very common with students that have severe disabilities. Specific problems may include difficulty walking or sitting without support. Children may be unable to perform basic tasks such as rolling over, grasping objects, or holding their head up.
Deafness and Blindness
“IDEA defines deaf-blindness as concomitant hearing and visual impairments, the combination of which causes such severe communication and other developmental and educational needs that they cannot be accommodated in special education programs solely for children with deafness or children with blindness” (Heward, 2009, p. 455).
Resources
Brain and Spinal Cord.org. (2011). Brain injury statistics. Retrieved on January 11, 2011, from
Elizabeth, M. (2011). Special education statistics. Education Bug. Retrieved on January 10, 2011, from
Heward, W.L. (2011). Characteristics of children with mental retardation. Education.com, Inc. Retrieved on January 10, 2011, from
Heward, W.L. (2009). Exceptional children: An introduction to special education (9th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.
Kaneshiro, N. & Zieve, D. (2009, November 2). Mental retardation. The New York Times, p. 1.
Leibert, P. (1997). What causes mental retardation? The Prevention News. Retrieved on January 10, 2011, from
Mayo Clinic Staff. (2011). Autism: Causes. Retrieved on January 11, 2011, from, http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/autism/DS00348/DSECTION=causes
Mayo Clinic Staff. (2011). Traumatic brain injury. Retrieved on January 11, 2011, from http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/traumatic-brain-injury/DS00552
Mental Retardation. (2011). In Encyclopedia of Mental Disorders. Retrieved on January 10, 2011, from
NIH: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. (2011). Developmental disabilities. Retrieved on January 10, 2011, from
NIH: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. (2011). Autism. Retrieved on January 11, 2011, from http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001526.htm