School dropout is more frequent amongst girls. Also engagement, marriage and motherhood contribute to school dropout. The percentage of girls in primary schools in developing countries is lower than that of boys. A case in point is in Africa in1987 the rate of enrolment of boys aged 6 to 11 was 69% and that of girls only 56% for the same age group. In Asia 77% boys attended school while 59% girls did not (73).
In summing one can ascertain that under-attendance of girls at school attributes to less being able to neither read nor write. The reasons are that many of these girls live in rural areas and are generally poor. Parents do not see the attendance of their daughters in school a necessity and not essential when there are household chores to be performed, which in the eyes of mothers and grandparents are more important than education, whereas it is for boys as they turn out to become heads of the households (K. Chlebowska, 1990: 74).
As we have observed there are constraints put into place, which affect women’s literacy in developing countries. Subsequently, it is more difficult for women and girls to acquire an education while boys are given more of an opportunity to do so. As a result, due to this kind of restriction on women the manifestation of gender-gap has astronomical influence that is irreparable.
Effects of Gender Gap on Education
Gender-gap is nearly as always accompanied by gender-bias. Consequently, much of the gender-bias in early human resource development arises form the intra-household markets. Boys are usually favoured by parents’ expenditure on education, nutrition and medicine, which perpetuates the disadvantages of women (I. Palmer, 1992: 77). Accordingly, gender-bias acts as a restrictive measure. Palmer points out that in the “…conditions of ” education “…participation are different for men and women” (78).
As a result girls who receive little or no education suffer a massive disadvantage in facing the modern world. They lack the resources that will enable them to tackle poverty more effectively.
Without basic education, most subsequent training is closed to them, and economic opportunities are therefore limited to the informal sector…girls are often offered” that’s if she is given a chance to an education, “feminine skills rather than science and technical subjects. When these biases inherent in curricula are added to the problems of lack of adequate role modes for girls beyond a certain level of education and the generally lower expectation of girls held by teachers, parents, teachers and the girls themselves. It is not difficult to see why education may reinforce gender roles rather than challenging them (J. Cleves. Mosse, 1993: 80-81).
It is believed that many teachers themselves are not conscious of the discrimination. According to Mosse,”teachers are not conscious of the discrimination that women as a gender face and they are not able to challenge damaging stereotypes …simple because they do not perceive them” (81). However, for those girls who go to school, the school environment will be pre-determined on what kind of education to receive and the school to attend which contributes to more gender-bias and inequalities among men and women. Nevertheless, Mosse points out that when education is offered to girls they show a lack of enthusiasm because, “much education offered to the girls is a ‘double-edged sword in that it reinforces and heightens their sense of inadequacy as girls” (82).
Clearly this kind of educational structure is failing women. It fails them to prepare for anything other than their role as a wife and mother thus allowing them no control over their own lives. Mosse stresses that another effect of the gender-gap is that the wife’s role in decision-making matters may be weaker than the husband’s because the husband’s education is much greater than the wife’s (83).
Education and Health
Little control by women over their reproductive lives and over the allocation of children means larger families and less healthy children. Studies have shown that the health of children depends in no small measure on the level of education of their mothers (J. Cleve Mosse, 1993: 83).
The implementation of programs to protect children is easier when the mother is capable of reading the medical instructions that may save the child ‘s life. Literate women can best face critical situations caused by diarrhoea . A child’s life may depend on the mother’s ability to prepare an oral rehydration formula in the propitiations indicated on the medication’s label. Thus, literate mothers are more likely to break with custom and traditional practices, which has negative repercussions on health. There are fewer fatalities about illness and more are of modern medical treatment, which increases their survival and that of other members of their family
(K. Chlebowska, 1990: 56).
In summing, gender-gap in education can lead to significant welfare loses (M. King etal, 1990: 19). One would argue that important benefits for development goals could be accredit with improving women’s education. King also asserts that the level of female education is itself correlated to other factors such as labour and national income, which in turn influences social welfare (16).
Women in the Labour Force
Available evidence suggests that countries with low levels of income and difficult social settings have the greatest barriers restricting female participation in higher education that contributes to growth advancement within the labour force. Countries in Asia such as Pakistan, Nepal and Bangladesh and much of Sub-Saharan Africa fall into this category (K. Subbarao, etal, 1994: 53). The demand for women’s higher education is very low due to factors such as cultural restrictions of women’s participation in education and labour force.
According to Khoury (1995) a major problem to the study of women in the labour force is that women are not represented as does the men. In practice most women work in rural areas and their labour is subsumed under the “‘family’” labour and thus excluded form labour statistic (87). Consequently, women contribute enormously to the work force even though they are ill represented and their labour not included in statistics. A survey of women’s work in rural areas shows that women do 70 to 75% of agricultural work. (88).
Pacey who wrote The Culture of Technology (1996) argues that women’s values are not valued and recognized in society. He demonstrates that this has been so through history. Pacey asserts that in Africa women are responsible for three-quarter of the food that is consumed yet they are un appreciated and not recognized for their labour, while the one-quarter of the men who help grow the crops are revered and recognized (98-99).
Agricultural Labour: The Business of Women
Apart from the different roles that women play as mothers, wives and members of a community, their roles in agricultural production merits special attention. Statistics compiled by Food and Agriculture of the United Nations (FAO) on the role of women in agriculture showed that in 1985 they represented forty-two percent of the economically active population in Africa, eleven percent in Latin America, forty-six percent in Asia and thirty-seven percent in the developing countries overall (L. Chelebowska, 1990: 24). As noted by Chelebowska, these figures do not reflect the true picture and there is sometimes a wide difference between official statistics and reality (25).
Bisilliat who wrote Women of the Third World (1987) emphasizes that women who are wage labourers in agriculture belong to the underprivileged social strata of the peasantry found in both Asia and Latin America (21). It is believed that these women who compromise the largest agricultural group does not work on big plantations, but belong to rural families without land. According to her, “…work of women are time consuming, repetitive, meticulous tasks, neither enhancing nor appreciated; temporary work; low pay; lower pay than that received by men for identical work”. She also clearly states that women have to work ‘double day’ (22) which evidently means that a woman assumes responsibilities not only as a bread-earner but that of a housewife.
“Since she has to assume her functions as housewife and wage earner, women hire themselves out as day workers in the fields of the medium and large landowners at the time of sowing, planting, weeding and harvesting” (22).
For those women who would rather earn their wages else where the factory system is another option though the work and its environment is more stringent.
Women in Factories
Industries in the third world employ a large proportion of women between the ages of fourteen to twenty-four and this proportion run as high as seventy percent in other developing countries (J. Bisilliat, 1987: 23). In Philippines, women work in factories without contracts and are paid by the piece. A woman can earn somewhere between $54- $67, while her expenses for food and transportation takes up most or if not all her salary. The average pay for unskilled workers is somewhere at $37.50. Added to these miserable salaries are the working conditions where there are no fringe benefits and if there is any, they are extremely low (J. Bisilliat, etal: 1987: 68).
Working conditions are dangerous which attest to many accidents occurring. In 1970-76 disability cases multiplied by 2.7% (69). According to Bisilliat:
“In Philippines, 61% of the declared accidents led to temporary total disability…those who work in the textile industry suffer from backache and varicose veins. Those using microscopes in electronics ruin their eyesight in two or three years [Grossman 1978]. Others were exposed to skin disease…and exposure to acid fumes and solvents” (J. Bisilliat, etal, 1987: 69).
Though many women are willing to deal with the harsh work environment as wage earners they could still get dismissed for other reasons like pregnancy. Bisilliat points out that, “as for maternity leave a woman need not worry, for pregnancy is a cause for dismissal” (69).
By drawing your attention to the many factors that leads to women’s under-development which is due in part to not receiving an education, which also in turn results in many not being recognized for playing their part in the labour force, one has to realize that some of these women who were not given the tool that would have equipped them to become prosperous members in their society –EDUCATION. This word seems to affect their daily lives. One could argue that it is the way they were socialized or it is the ways of their cultures and customs. Yet still, with the 21st century upon us, the discrimination still persists in some countries. There has been governmental involvement in alleviating the problems so that women will thus have an EDUCATION, still, with all the structural adjustment programs, various workshops and formation of women’s group, this problem will continue. For as solutions are put into place to stop this trend, only one thing remains: it is the decision of parents and grandparents to decide whether girls get an EDUCATION and if so, will it be too time consuming when there are chores to be done as “a woman’s place is in the home!”
In concluding, this essay has tried to answer and point out some of the constraints of literacy that affects women in developing countries. Numerous of these constraints keep women form becoming literate members in their society. Finally, education does influences women’s progression in the society and for most women a lack of education has profounding effects upon their development process.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bisilliat, Jeanne and Fieloux, Michele. Women of The Third World: Work and Daily Life. Associated University Press, London & Toronto. 1987: pp-21, 23,59, 68, 69.
Chelbowska, Krystyna. Literacy for rural women in the Third World. Imprimerie Duculot Press, Belgium. 1990: pp-2, 7, 16, 22-25, 56, 72- 78, 83.
Khoury, Nabil and Moghadam, Valentine, M. Gender and Development in the Arab World. United Nation University Press, London. 1995: pp- 87,88.
King, Elizabeth and Hill, Anne. Women’s Education in Developing Countries. The Johns Hopkins University Press. 1993: pp- 2,3, 16, 19.
Malmquist, Eve. Women and Literacy Development in the Third World. L.J. Fotoa & Montage Press. Sweden. 1992: pp- 16,19, 20, 25.
Mosse-Cleves, Julia. Half The World, Half The Chance: An Introduction to Gender and Development. Alden Press, Oxford. 1993: pp-80-83.
Pacey, Arnold. The Culture of Technology. The MIT Press, Massachusetts. 1996: pp.98-99.
Palmer, Ingrid. Gender Equity and Economic Efficiency. Edited by Afshar, Haleh and Dennis, Carolyne. Women and Adjustment Policies in the Third World. Antony Rowe Ltd., Great Britain. 1992: pp-77, 78.
Subbarao, K, etal. Women in Higher Education: Progress, Constraints, and Promising Initiatives. World Bank Discussion Papers. USA. 1994: pp-53.
.
Note also that according to Malmquist, the evident literacy gap between both men and women is one of many significant indicators of the economic, social and cultural inequalities for many girls and women. Women and Literacy Development in the Third World, pp-16.
According to King, the census data taken by UNESCO shows data of over 51 countries. Twenty-five of these countries do not have a census-base literacy data after 1980. Only data going back to the 1960’s, for all other countries the data reported are UNECO estimates for 1981-1985. The criteria, which determines if a person can read, or write differs among countries. Women’s Education in Developing Countries by E. King, etal, pp-2-3.
Women often face barriers such as hostile families or community attitude; local traditions and ancestral customs about their role in society; lack of time after family and household commitments; frequent pregnancies; irrelevant literacy pogrammes and lack of child-care facilities (UNESCO, 1991).
Excerpts from, Women’s Education in Developing Countries shows that in these countries women are more uneducated than men and that the gender gap is vast in the poorest countries, pp-2.
Take for instance, Nepalese peasant women who has to help cultivate the land; feed the domestic animals; look after children; cut the grass for cattle; gather firewood; take animals out to graze; carry compost or dung to the fields; prepare feed for the animals; milk the cow; grind corn; draw water, prepare and serve meals, etc.” Illustration from, Literacy for rural women in the Third World, pp 81-82.
Refers to school age children who did not attend school in 1985, including over 80 million girls. Largest number came from poorer families, pp-70.
Diarrhoea is one of six main causes for infant mortality in the Third World. Taken from Literacy for
rural women in the Third World, by K. Chlebowska, pp-56.
Per capita GNP in these countries is below $500. These countries experience low overall enrollment rate both at the lower levels and at the tertiary levels of educations. Women in Higher Education by K. Saubbarao, pp-53.
There are also the factors of distance to universities, low level in participation in secondary education and high direct and opportunity costs, ibid.
