Account for the union of Italy
Account for the union of Italy
The structure of the peninsula of Italy is an important fact when regarding the union of 1861. Unlike other main European powers, who had developed unified kingdoms with a single government controlling territory populated by peoples who shared strong cultural and linguistic traditions, Italy was a fragmented power divided by kingdoms duchies, traditions even language. In this essay I will show just how the coming of Napoleon Bonaparte, the brilliant political strategy of Camillio Cavour, and the quick escalation of events forced unification upon Piedmont. Not to mention the effect the Risorgimento had on Italy and her neighbours.
The peninsula of Italy had never had a sense of union between the countries with in her boarders. This was no where more clear than with the divide between the north and south. These differences mainly due to the lack of infrastructure in the south and the back wards economy caused countries like Piedmont to look else where for inspiration i.e. France, with her language and culture. This was helped by the fact that in 1796 France invaded Italy and conquered the whole mainland, for 18 years the population was exposed to the nationalistic and revolutionary ideals, which apart form a few clubs consisting of nobles and bourgeoisie had never had a wide bases of distribution. With the occupation the Italian states were as one, with one custom, language, law and order. The land was redistributed and Italy was finally made into a modern system of government and infrastructure except industry which was suppressed so not to rival France. From this a new middle class began to appear, since the old feudal ties were destroyed. Probably the greatest development which the French occupiers introduced was representative government based on the French system, this beginning of elected assemblies, started a fire that did not go out and caused many of the uprisings/revolutions. After the defeat of Napoleon Italy's leaders were returned to power with all the old institutions returned, including old absolutist regimes in piedmont and Naples also the removal of elected assemblies. With this destruction of freedom secrete societies emerged mainly in the large cities such as Turin and Naples, consisting of nobles and old officers who fought with Napoleon. By 1820 these groups had formed secret societies, the largest of which was the Carbonari. They were perhaps more concerned with securing constitutions from their absolutist sovereigns than with any great national aim, but some of them certainly wrote of "Italy". In 1820 there were revolutions in Naples and Piedmont, spearheaded by the Carbonari. After the removal of napoleon from Italy, the Vienna settlement felt that the peninsula could be an unstable region, one which could erupt as did the French in 1789. Therefore the provinces of Lombardy and Venetia were occupied by Austria as a stabilising influence.
This was a bitter blow for any nationalist feelings in the country for as shown in the 1820 uprisings, how ever well they do against their own old masters they were soon put down by the Austrians. "Metternich was opposed to nationalism as well as liberalism...that Austrian safety depended on the maintenance of the status quo in Italy"1 Another blow to this cause was a leader. The obvious choice would have been the Pope; unfortunately the backward looking Pope refused reforms and in 1831 was ousted from power once again to be put down by the Austrians. Yet ...
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This was a bitter blow for any nationalist feelings in the country for as shown in the 1820 uprisings, how ever well they do against their own old masters they were soon put down by the Austrians. "Metternich was opposed to nationalism as well as liberalism...that Austrian safety depended on the maintenance of the status quo in Italy"1 Another blow to this cause was a leader. The obvious choice would have been the Pope; unfortunately the backward looking Pope refused reforms and in 1831 was ousted from power once again to be put down by the Austrians. Yet with the news of uprisings in Naples the members of the Carbonari in Turin increased and soon many officers were in arms an the army of Turin and the Alessandria fortress was captured forcing Victor Emmanuel to abdicate for his son Charles Felix, who was away so Charles Albert took over. This new leader granted a constitution which didn't last long for once again the Austrians replaced Albert with his brother Felix. Both rebellions of 1820 and of 1831 had been spurred by uprisings in Spain and France, unfortunately it was becoming evident that with out Austria being occupied else where there would never be a chance for the liberals to get the concessions they wanted. These two rebellions were called the Risorgimento or re-birth; it was not believed that the union came about by accident or war but by the gradual evolution as a nation.
The union of Italy could really only take place with a single leader at its head. Many proposed the new Pope Pius IX, who was instituting reforms and decrees and a constitution of 1848, but he felt threatened and as with many leaders at this time fled to Naples of Paris, although replaced two years later by a French intervention, Pius returned to the Vatican and thereafter devoted himself to opposing all liberalism, both ecclesiastical and political. The kingdom of Naples was no better, he refused a constitution until rebellion forced him to sign one, these rebellions were spurts of tension from the governing elites wanting a say in the run of their country. This sense of nationalism although restricted to their own provinces shows a development in the unions cause. One can not really ignore the influence from the radicals such as Mazzini who started such programmes as the 'young Italy' which although republican had the all out goal for a united Italy which would begin with the representation of the people through the elected assemblies. "up to now the observer has been struck by the singularity of Italian revolutions... boldly undertaken and successfully carried out. Then, after the first phase lost impetus, became uncertain and fearful... they lacked leaders"2 Finally in 1831 Charles Albert came to the throne of Piedmont, this coming to power was seen as hopefully a continued expression of nationalism from him with the agreed constitution some 10 years earlier.
The main years of revolution which I feel constitute the bulk for the beginning of the union of Italy was in 1848. This time was a time of economic crisis around Europe, harvest had failed and the prices had gone up. Since 90% of the population of Italy relied on agriculture this caused great tension within society. Revolutions broke out in Sicily where Ferdinand II had promised a better life for Sicilians and had appointed officials to make sure reforms were carried out, this did not last and soon Sicily was in a state or repression and desperate. January 1848 saw a distribution of notices calling on rebellion and showed how to gain arms in 3 days time, soon revolutionaries were arrested but on the day the streets were full. Although badly organised the people took the town and surrounding country side, and a provincial government consisting of upper- middle class moderates called on the king to reinstall the constitution of 1812 which had been revoked in 1816, when a compromise was offered fighting continued and by April the revolutionaries had taken most of the island, the government which was set up declared that it was separating from the kingdom of Naples and so was an independent state, their aims of 1848 and 1820 were complete. Problems at home caused the Neapolitan government to concede for the time being and order a constitution of their own in Naples after uprisings in the streets and a call for reforms. The king ordered a two house parliament and national guard also the freedom of the press was allowed along with common land distribution, unfortunately by 1849 the king had gone back on his word revoked the constitution and retaken Sicily. Not so in other areas of the peninsula. News of the uprising caused rebellions of their own mainly in Piedmont the Papal States and Lombardy like Sicily not for union but against occupiers, here they quickly called on a union with piedmont on the 22nd march. Charles Albert who had just granted a constitution now was persuaded by liberals to go to war with Austria since they had their own problems of uprisings in Vienna where Metternich had been dismissed.
Firstly the war went well for Charles Albert with the defeat of the Austrians in May. However, with the success of the Piedmont's army the papal commander disobeyed orders and went to join forces with Charles Albert, this put the Pope in a difficult position, how can the leader of the catholic faith, fight a leading country of catholic beliefs especially when their intervention helped secure the Popes position. Soon a declaration went out stating that the Pope would not fight against Austria and he also drew back from the idea of him heading an Italian federation. This left Italians to choose between following their political principals and obeying their religious leader. With the suppression of the Vienna uprisings the leader of the Austrian forces Radetzky waited for reinforcements with which he soon defeated Charles Albert and retook Lombardy, the Venetians hurriedly renounced their union with Piedmont and continued the fight. With the murder of the Popes hated chief minister the Pope fled and left the government to announce reforms and dissolution of the hated grinding corn tax. They also proposed a meeting of representative from all parts of Italy called the Costituente. This met for the first time in Rome in February 1849, of which one member was Garibaldi. Four days later they announced the overthrow of temporal power of the Pope and declared a republic. The Pope appealed to France Naples and Austria to free the most holy city of Rome, some 20,000 French troops soon after a heroic siege by the rebels took Rome and destroyed the roman republic.
The lessons of the failed revolutions of 1848-9 showed that the key to Italian unity was held by the Austrians. After the second attempt by Charles Albert to defeat the Austrians in March 1849, many of the refugees fleeing Austrian brutality settled in Turin and Genoa some 200,000 this gave Piedmont a new cosmopolitan feel which it had never had before. Also the new constitution of 1848 now lay down the stage for Camillio Cavour to come to power and influence European policy, which help shape the peninsula and finally the kingdom of Italy.
Count Camillio Benso di Cavour was the second son of a rich noble man, who's visions of changing Piedmont in to a shadow of England after his visit to there in 1833, being very impressed by the railways and factories and mills, of which Italy lacked considerably in number. Although never taken by the ideas of the instituted government Cavour soon found alliances with other liberal non-revolutionary politicians, by 1851 was appointed finance minister and by 1852 was prime minister to Victor Emmanuel II. However historians view the entering of the Crimean war by piedmont under direction from Cavour it is now seen by many although not immediately beneficial to the Italian cause later was found in valuable to the alliance that would be needed if ever Italy was to be free of the Austrian presence.
One of the most secretive yet most famous meetings of the Risorgimento was staged between Cavour and Napoleon III near the Swiss frontier called Plombieres. "Neither Napoleon III nor Cavour expected Italian Unification"3 The idea was to provoke Austria in making an ultimatum in which Piedmont could decline. His wish was granted in April 1859 with Piedmonts mobilisation the Austrians had to mobilise a large army in the north of which they could not hope to sustain for long so soon an ultimatum was sent demanding piedmonts demilitarisation, from here Austria was seen as the aggressor so allowing the great powers not to be concerned with possible revolutionary tendencies in Italy. With this ultimatum Victor Emmanuel II declared to all Italians "people of Italy! Austria assails Piedmont... I fight for the right of a whole nation... I have no other ambition than to be the first soldier of Italian independence"4
Soon war was declared and soon the Austrians were defeated in two bloody battles. However Napoleon suddenly made a truce with Austria on the 11th July 1859, possibly due to the carnage but more likely because of the movements within Italy. Cavour was making movements with in Tuscany, along with rebellions in Romagna and Modena and Parma joining with Piedmont to make an even large power block for Turin to govern.
Cavour was furious and during the next 9 months the fate of central Italy was decided, with deceit and gossip to leaked documents any congress of Italy fell apart. Under pressure from Britain Napoleon became sympathetic to a union of the north and central states.
As Cavour returned to power in 1860 negotiations with napoleon were re-established and good will enabled the agreement of handing over Nice and Savoy took place meaning that when an election to see if the disputed states wanted a union with piedmont and the results were in France were in little position to cause a problem. From here until the death of Cavour in 1862 the union of the rest of Italy was between three men Cavour Garibaldi and Victor Emmanuel II, with Garibaldi's invasion of Sicily and the over throw of Naples with out one shot being fired and the union of the armies between Victor Emmanuel and Garibaldi Italy was complete. In March 1861 Victor Emmanuel II was elected King of Italy, although Rome still held French troops and in fact were still an independent state the union was soon established.
The union of Italy was a mixture of events, throughout this essay I have tried to high light some of the key points, ranging from political to the military defeats leading to political victories. It is widely considered a mixture of events of which Piedmont was mixed up in that made Italy a united country by 1861. Whether she wanted to be a united peninsula mixing north with south is another topic but the following civil war suggests not.
Bibliography
S. Woolf, "The Italian Risorgimento." (London 1969)
C. Delzell, "The Unification of Italy, 1859-1861" (USA 1965)
A. Stiles, "The Unification of Italy" (London, 1992)
H. Hearder "Italy in the Age of the Risorgimento 1790-1870 (Oxford 1983)
G.F.H Berkeley "Italy in the Making" (Cambridge 1968)
D. Mack Smith "The Making of Italy 1796-1870" (London 1968)
W. Stillman "The Union of Italy" (Cambridge 1896)
L.Riall " The Italian Risorgimento" (London 1994)
A. Stiles "The Unification of Italy 1815-17" (London 1992) pg 9
2 S.Woolf, "The Italian Risorgimento." (London 1969) pg 106
3 C.Delzell, "The Unification of Italy, 1859-1861" (USA 1965) pg 86
4 A.Stiles, "The Unification of Italy" (London, 1992) pg 201
