The second chapter of Spalinger’s book, entitled, “The System of Early Dyasty XVIII: Technological and Physical Constraints”, discusses travel routes and supplies needed for the campaign of Thutmoses III to Megiddo. The beginning of the XVIIIth Dynasty saw a new type of military tactics being used in Egypt. More importance was now being put on chariot warfare and the way in which the Egyptian army was able to maneuver around Egypt. By not using the Nile as a means of travel, the Egyptian army was slowed down. Also taking into consideration was the need for supplies and armaments. This too, slowed the Egyptian advance. The use of horses was of paramount importance in the transportation of supplies. However, because the geographic setting of Egypt is mainly arid and dry, transporting water was vital both for men and for horses. This too was another constraint that the Egyptian military faced. Spalinger breaks down the projected travel distance per day by the Egyptian army and their need for supplies for men, horses, and mules. He cites some of the war records of Thutmose III en route to Megiddo as reliable information and insight into the struggles they faced. Special attention is paid to travelling routes through Palestine, which might have put a constraint on the size and advancement of the Egyptian army. Spalinger questions the size of the Egyptian army at this time stating, “The other possibility is that the Egyptian army was not large by later standards in the ancient world, an interpretation that needs careful examination when we turn to the actual key battles.” (39)
The Egyptian landscape is often considered harsh and very difficult to travel through. The rugged and dry landscape presented a formidable opponent to those wishing to make their way across vast desert. Because of this harsh landscape, the use of ships as a means of communication and transportation proved to be efficient and effective. The Egyptians had used their navy primarily for these purposes. They would send soldiers to areas throughout Egypt whose jobs it was to quell rebellions or to repel attackers. This is very evident in the use of the ships to transport food and supplies to the forts that were stationed in the south near Nubia. These forts often were placed in difficult areas. The ancient Egyptian navy proved to be a reliable component to their military. It was used in the transportation of both soldiers and supplies and provided needed aid to soldiers fighting in areas that were hard to get to by foot. They Egyptian army relied heavily on the rations that they received from cities such as Thebes and Karnak.
In chapter three, Spalinger discusses Egyptian army’s advance into the Sudan and Asia and its’ “Southern and Northern Expansion”. The Egyptian kings moved south towards Nubia in a concerted and well planned effort. The first point to be taken was to be that of Buhen, the strong fortress of the Middle Kingdom. Buhen was located on the Nile River around the Second Cataract. Spalinger draws attention to the use of the royal fleet of ships in this effort. In contrast to the chariots and horses being used in the north against the Hyksos, the battle in the south was mainly fought with men on foot accompanied by the Egyptian version of a navy. “The usefulness of the royal flotilla meant that troops could be hastened to any site as rapid as possibly. The men were easy to supply because the fleet would have included the necessary war material, food, and the like.” (46)
Spalinger begins to discuss the change in the Egyptian military system in Chapter four, titled, “Social and Religious Implications of the New Military System”. He states that in the beginning of the XVIIIth Dynasty, the Egyptian military system was split into two main tiers. At this time the chariot arm of the military had not been established as a primary unit of the Egyptian military. This would soon change as improvements were made and more emphasis was put on chariot warfare. “Representative of the new military organization were men who held the positions of marshal, field marshal, master of the stalls (an administrative functionary), first officer of the chariotry, and the charioteer. The growing specialization of the military ranks saw a switch from a mainly naval based military force to that of a land based one. While higher officers had previously also been engaged in paramilitary functions, their role now became purely military. Spalinger also points out that during this time of military change, Egypt began to develop a far more aggressive foreign policy. One example of this is Egypt’s expansion into Nubia around the Second Cataract. This new aggressive foreign policy could partially have been the result of increased nationalism experienced after the Egyptian success against the Hyksos. Nationalism played an important role in the overall attitude of Egypt and its warriors. “It must be granted that the successful campaigns of the Pharaohs within Egypt and later in Nubia and Asia fostered to some degree the feeling of superiority on the part of the warriors.” (73)
The campaign of Thutmose III and the eventual battle of Megiddo is mentioned in chapter five. Many scholars point out that this was a crucial point in Egyptian history. A victory at Megiddo would open the doors to a more permanent occupation within Palestine. At the time, the city-states within Palestine had grown apart from Egypt. “Megiddo lay in the Esdraelon Plain and was the most important centrally located city in Palestine. It controlled the trade routes to the east to Trans-Jordan as well as to the north, in fact directly to Kadesh.” (83) By reestablishing Egyptian dominance in Palestine, Thutmose began a reign in which Egypt reached its greatest expanse as an empire. He also required from the defeated kings following his campaign at Megiddo, that they send their sons to the Egypt to receive an Egyptian education. Once they had completed their Egyptian educational requirements, they were to return home and govern under Egyptian ideals and theologies. The victory at Megiddo was only the beginning of the pacification of Palestine and the surrounding area. There would be many more battles before peace would come to the region however Megiddo was a crucial starting point.
The sixth chapter, "The Pharaoh on Campaign: Ideal and Real", takes a brief look at how the Egyptian army took camp while on campaign. The king is particularly emphasized in how he interacted with the army when it made camp. The king was always the first to lead troops into battle, and because of this, was well respected by the troops his fought with. Spalinger discusses the battles of Megiddo and Kadesh when analyzing the Pharoah on campaign. “The role of the Thutmose III during his march to Megiddo highlights the developed character of the royal figure as military leader. At this time, over two centuries had passed during which a new scope to the functions of the rubric King as Hero.” (101)
Spalinger continues to discuss the war records of Thutmose III in chapter seven, “The Later Military Situation in Asia and at Home”. His primary focus is primarily on the gains of military campaigns based on the records of Thutmose III. Following the capture of Kadesh, the grain was harvested and horses and chariots were captured. “For the first time we read an official account of the “plunder” taken from Asia. It included male and female slaves, chariots, and horses.” (111) Spalinger then begins to analyze the definition of the term “inu”. This term is ambiguous and is commonly translated as plunder. However, in a more native context, it refers to an exceptional delivery of goods. Also discussed is the advancements in weaponry in both the bow and chariot. These advancements are depicted in Egyptian artwork.
In chapters eight through eleven, Spalinger discusses the end of the XVIIIth Dynasty. Egyptian imperialism in Asia under Thutmose III, following the successful Egyptian military campaigns is reviewed in chapter eight. Spalinger devotes special attention to the Egyptian geographical terms for their newly conquered lands. The supplies and valuables captured in obtaining these lands were used to help equip the Egyptian army. The following chapter mainly focuses on the economic welfare of Egypt and begins to talk about the reign of Amunhotep II. Spalinger notes the growing size of the population in Egypt and its’ occupied territories gained in Asia. Difficulty arose in controlling a larger empire with greater amounts of people. “The Egyptian Empire can thus be considered to have been a loosely held zone of warring city-states that was kept under control through a rather thin series of garrisons and not too many troops.” (145) Spalinger discusses the Amarna Letters throughout his book, but he discusses them in great detail in chapter ten. He highlights their references to warfare during the reigns of Amenhotep III and IV. Chapter eleven begins to talk about the change in Egypt from a primarily civilian state to that of a military one. Over the years, more emphasis was being put on the military, as the military class was becoming more and more influential. “It is best to view Dynasty XVIII society as one in which some groups (bureaucracy/officialdom; priesthood; military) existed, and when the war machine had become important.” (183)
Spalinger’s in depth look at the XVIIIth Dynasty was my favorite part of his book. In studying history, oftentimes, too much emphasis is put on the accomplishments and feats of powerful military units. Spalinger offered a unique glance into the beginnings of the Egyptian war machine and what aspects contributed to its rise to power. He focused on the logistics of the Egyptian military, rather than discussing only battles. In my past ancient history classes, the Ramesside era in Egyptian history has always been a main topic of discussion. It was refreshing to learn about the XVIIIth Dynasty and the very beginnings of the Egyptian war machine.
