basis which ignored this law of impermanence.”(Alexander, Selbie and Gray 133)
Dukkha’s second manifestation is in Anatman or Anatta meaning no permanent self-identity.
This theory of Anatman accepts the existence of five aggregates (Skandhas). The Skandhas
include physical processes (rupa) like solidity, fluidity, heat, motion i.e. material sense organs
and their corresponding objects and mental processes (nama) which includes the last four
aggregates. The four aggregates of nama are sensation processes (vedana), perceptual processes
(sanna), volitional processes (sankara) and consciousness processes (vainnana). Despite
accepting these five aggregates, this theory rejects the idea of Atman or Self. “The doctrine of
Anatman is one of the central teachings of Buddhism. According to this doctrine, there is no
"self" in the sense of a permanent, integral, autonomous being within an individual existence.
What we think of as our self, our personality and ego, are temporary creations of the .”
(O’Brien, “Anatman,” par.1)
The final manifestation of dukkha is in the form of its self i.e. suffering or dissatisfaction. This is
the most direct manifestation of dukkha and is derived from Anichcha and Anatman. Both
impermanence and no-self argue that forming attachments to this-worldly things merely causes
suffering. “It is essentially transience and all that arises from the experience of transience…the
primary characteristic of sentient existence is the fact of dukkha. This is signified in the first of
the Four Noble Truths: "there is dukkha"; this means the truth about suffering is the fact of its
universality.” (Bowker 296)
“…dukkha, actually has the more subtle meaning of ‘pervasive unsatisfactoriness.” (Epstein 4)
Theravada Buddhists define dukkha in a number of different ways. First, in the Four Noble
Truths dukkha is represented as birth, old age, sickness, and death; grief, sorrow, physical and
mental pain; involvement in what one dislikes and separation from what one likes; not getting
what one wants. The five skandhas are seen as the source of suffering. Second, the
threefold dukkha; as ordinary physical and mental pain meaning pure or intrinsic suffering;
suffering as the result of change, suffering owing to the impermanent and ephemeral nature of
things; and sufferings due to the formations of individuals and their temporal or finite states.
Third, it is maintained that all transient beings, whether gods, humans, pretas (deceased),
animals, or inhabitant of hell, are subject to dukkha. Therefore, it is evident that dukkha is all-
pervasive and all-encompassing. “Buddhism does asset the universal nature of suffering…Gods
suffer the least since they are in a hierarchy of different beings, and the inhabitants of hell the
most. Humans lying midway experience a mixture of suffering and happiness; this makes them
best fitted to escape from their temporary surroundings, because the mixture gives them both the
opportunity and the impetus to discriminate the nature of reality.” (Bowker 297)
Dukkha asserts that suffering is human life and thus its main cause is existence itself. Unlike
Western religions that assert that suffering is either the will of God, or an inheritance of original
sin, Buddhism places suffering squarely at the bearers doorstep, either by past bad karmic
actions, the discomfort we cause ourselves by searching for inherently unfulfilling paths, or by
the simple fact that by inhabiting a human form we are subject to the deterioration of all physical
matter. Aging, growing, living, and dying are all facts that even the most enlightened cannot
transcend. The concepts of attachment and impermanence are also causal factors of suffering.
Humans suffer because they fail to see the transience of the objects around them and thus, in
their ignorance, begin to form worldly connections which are broken, sooner or later, causing
suffering. Another common factor that is related to transience is change. “Because all
conditioned existence is impermanent it gives rise to Dukkha, and this means that in conditioned
existence there is no unchanging and permanent Self. There is nothing to grasp onto and also in
reality, nothing or no 'one' to do the grasping. We grab onto or try to push away ever changing
dynamic processes.” (“The Eight Fold Path,” par.2) Humans are always resisting change but
change is inevitable and thus, traumatic and painful. It is thus, evident, that suffering has its roots
in existence, dependent origination and transience.
In order to find a remedy to dukkha, it is important to first recognize that Dukkha exists and then
try to understand its nature. In order to understand, dukkha must be experienced without being
evaluated and without reacting in the habitual way. The next step and the last of the Four Noble
Truths is to walk on the Eightfold Path prescribed by Buddhism. “Lastly, what is the Noble Truth
of the Path that leads to the cessation of suffering? – It is the Noble Eightfold Path, consisting of
right outlook, right resolve, right speech, right acts, right livelihood, right endevour, right
mindfulness and right rapture of concentration.”(Radhakrishnan and Moore 277) The Eightfold
Path consists of three categories: (i) Wisdom, (ii) Virtue and (iii) Concentration. Wisdom calls
for Right View which includes understanding of the first three noble truths; and Right Intention
which includes commitment to ethical and mental self-improvement in the form of renunciation,
good-will, harmlessness and compassion. Virtue calls for Right Speech which includes avoiding
lies, exaggeration, idle chatter, malicious speech, gossip and backbiting; Right Action which
includes avoiding stealing, hurting and destroying life, dishonest dealings and illicit sexual
relations; and Right Livelihood which includes avoiding certain professions like weapons,
alcohol, poisons, killing animals, cheating, prostitution, slavery and such. Concentration calls for
Right Effort which includes development of good states of mind and prevention of evil states of
mind; Right Mindfulness which includes awareness of, control over and perfection of one’s
body, feelings, perception and thoughts; and Right Meditation/Concentration which includes
Samatha (stopping) and Vipassana (seeing). The Eightfold Path helps gain awareness or
mindfulness (Sati). Mindfulness causes one to investigate the real nature of Dukkha. This
investigation is known as Dhamma-vicaya. All this together, forms the basis for enlightenment
and thus release from Samsara which is the only remedy to dukkha.
Theravada Buddhism seems to be pessimistic in its approach since it projects dukkha as a
universal truth that cannot be avoided. However, this approach is far from pessimistic when
viewed through a broader lens. In fact, Theravada Buddhism is far more realistic than most
religions. It is a proven fact that suffering exists. From daily experiences, even a non-believer
cannot help but accept this truth as universal. Suffering transcends all boundaries and religions
and establishes itself in every human being’s life. The doctrine of no-self and change help
understand the realistic aspect of Theravada Buddhism. It is a universally accepted fact that
change is inevitable and that with change come suffering from severing ties and cutting
attachments. This view is neither simplistic nor pessimistic because it considers the existence of
suffering from a non-religious perspective. It also establishes the fact that change brings with it
the possibility for everything to become new again. Acceptance of suffering also makes peace of
mind and freedom easier to access. It also brings one, one step closer to attaining nirvana and
thus, escaping the material world and suffering forever. Thus, it is futile to look at Theravada
Buddhism through the narrow scope of pessimism but very advantageous to look at it through
the broad scope of realism.
“The doctrine of "no-" helps us understand why the doctrine of is not as
as it seems. From a Buddhist , it is simply to accept that the human
personality and all of reality is and that the cause of is not the
itself, but the human desire to hold on to and keep them from changing.
Buddhists… that if everything , then it is possible for everything to become
new. If they accept the doctrine of , it is possible to approach even the most difficult
situations in life with a feeling of lightness and .”(Yesselman, “Buddhism and Spiroza,”
Lecture 5, Part V)
Works Cited
Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli, and Charles Moore. A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy. Princeton,
NJ: Princeton University Press 1957
Hastings, James, John Alexander Selbie and Louis Herbert Gray. Encyclopedia of Religion and
Ethics. Boston: Harvard University Press 1916
Bowker, John. The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions. New York: Oxford University Press
1997
Epstein, Mark. Open Desire. Gotham 2006
“Buddhism and Spinoza” Buddhism and Spinoza. 9 March, 2005. The Teaching Company. 14
February 2009. <http://www.yesselman.com/BuddSpin.html>
“Dukkha” The Concept of Dukkha. Buddhism and Insight. 14 February 2009.
<http://web.ukonline.co.uk/buddhism/dhmasami.htm>
“The Eightfold Path” The Eightfold Path. 2009. Buddha Dharma Education Association Inc. 14
February 2009. <http://www.buddhanet.net/index.html>
“Anatman and Dukkha” Anatman and Dukkha. 2009. About Buddhism. 14 February 2009.
<http://buddhism.about.com/od/abuddhistglossary.htm>