Causes of The Lebanese Civil War.
Causes of The Lebanese Civil War
Submitted by: Mark Abinakle
Submitted to: Mr. Maccabi
Thursday December 20th, 2001
The Lebanese Civil War
Prior to the Civil War, Lebanon was not a nation, nor a community or society. Lebanon was a collection of sects and socio-religious communities; each of these communities deeming itself a nation. This essay is outlined into two sections. One deals with the immediate causes of the war, the other with the roots of the causes, which date as far back as 1860. In 1860, there were clashes between the Druze, a group of Muslim Shiites, and the Maronite Christians. More than 12,000 Christians were killed in these clashes, and this sparked a long and dreadful beginning of many subsequent conflicts that would eventually lead to the Civil War in 1975.(Fisk, 1990) In 1948, when Israel was created, as many as 300,000 Palestinians flocked into southern Lebanon.(Bavly, 1984) The Lebanese did not know that the Palestinians would cause such turmoil in Lebanon. Southern Lebanon was neglected for many years due to the influx of Palestinians in that area in 1948. The influx of Palestine immigrants fueled the conflict between the Christians and Muslims in Beirut. When in April 1975 a bus full of Palestinians was ambushed, the Lebanese Civil War was triggered and well under way. The Lebanese Civil War, which involved many Middle-Eastern countries, was caused by numerous political and religious factors.
The Christian Maronites of Lebanon had unwisely associated themselves with the crusaders to protect themselves from Muslim Arab assaults. Through the centuries, they spread to the south of Lebanon, through Beirut, into the lands of the Druzes in the Chouf and into the lands of the Muslims Shiites in the lower Bekaa. As a result of the Christian influx, tensions were building up between the various religious communities. In 1860, a Civil War broke out between Christians and Druzes. More than 12,000 Christians were massacred, promping France's intervention to protect the Maronites and to bring about the creation of an autonomous Lebanese province within the Ottoman Empire. This Empire would had a clear Christian majority and shared power with its minorities.(Fisk, 1990) By 1892, a Christian governor ruled the Lebanon district, while other various religious communities inhabited the land: Sunnis and Shiites, Druze, Maronite Christians, Greek Catholics, Greek Orthodox, and a small Jewish community in Beirut.(Abraham, 1996)
Another tragic movement of population was the emigrations of victims of the Armenian genocide into Lebanon. One million Armenians were slaughtered by the Turks in 1915, massacred and shot to death. Tens of thousands died of thirst and starvation after being forced into the north Syrian desert. Many had nowhere to go and ended up in Lebanon.(O'ballance, 1998) The Armenians were allowed to build shacks on the swamps of Bourj Hammoud in the east of the city, and following this they were able to erect houses. Today, there are approximately 150,000 Armenians living in Camp Marash working and hoping for the Liberation of Armenia.
Lebanon experienced more changes after World War I. On September 1, 1920, France added parts of Ottoman Syria to the original territory of the autonomous province of Lebanon; thus creating a completely distinct state-Greater Lebanon under the French mandate. More Muslims were now added to the Christian majority of Lebanon causing disruption of the demographic balance in the new state, and resulting in discord between the traditional Maronite Christian cultures.(Fisk, 1990)
In addition, French culture and political influence began to dominate Lebanon. France mandate extended across Syria and Lebanon, while the British mandate encompassed Palestine, Transjordan and Iraq. The French, knowing that Syrian nationalist sentiment would be opposed to Frech rule and that Sunnis were their principal antagonists, continued to capitalize on the good will of the Christians to increase their control in the area. French became a compulsory language during a time when Arab nationalists were enjoying the linguistic triumph of Arabic over Turkish, a victory which had important political implications for the concept of Arab unity. The ...
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In addition, French culture and political influence began to dominate Lebanon. France mandate extended across Syria and Lebanon, while the British mandate encompassed Palestine, Transjordan and Iraq. The French, knowing that Syrian nationalist sentiment would be opposed to Frech rule and that Sunnis were their principal antagonists, continued to capitalize on the good will of the Christians to increase their control in the area. French became a compulsory language during a time when Arab nationalists were enjoying the linguistic triumph of Arabic over Turkish, a victory which had important political implications for the concept of Arab unity. The Druze of Lebanon were to join forces with their fellow Druze in the rebellion against the French in 1925. The Greek orthodox wanted to be reunited with Syria as did the majority of Sunni Muslim inhabitants of Lebanon. France quickly extinguished the Druze rebellion with the help of gangs (what kind of gangs?) Armenians, and Druze militamen. So began a pattern of events, which was to recreate itself in Lebanon in increasingly savage ways over the coming years.
In 1943, the Christian Maronites and the Muslim Sunnis agreed to share political power in an unwritten agreement known as the National Pact. The contents of this agreement were approved and supported by their followers. The National Pact laid down four principles. First, Lebanon was to be a completely independent state. The Christian communities were to cease identifying with the West; in return, the Muslim communities were to protect the independence of Lebanon and prevent its merger with any Arab state. Second, although Lebanon was an Arab country with Arabic as its official language, it could not cut off its spiritual and intellectual ties with the West, which had helped it attain such a notable degree of progress. Third, Lebanon, as a member of the family of Arab states, should cooperate with the other Arab states, and should conflict arise among them, it was not to side with one state against another. Fourth, public offices should be distributed proportionally among the recognized religious groups. In technical positions, however, competence would be emphasized without regard to confessional considerations.(Deeb, 1980). Moreover, the three top government positions should be distributed as follows: the president of the republic should be a Maronite; the prime minister, a Sunni Muslim; and the speaker of the Chamber of Deputies, a Shiite Muslim. The ratio of deputies was to be six Christians to five Muslims. From the beginning, the balance provided in the National Pact was fragile. The Muslims, who were soon discontented with the 1943 contract, realized the Pact established a dominant political role for the Christians (Phalange Party or Phalangists), especially the Maronites, in the central government.(what did they do? What was their negative response?)
After the creation of the state of Israel in 1948 and the Palestinian exodus, the fragile distribution of power established by the National Pact tipped over. Like the Armenians, the Palestinians settled in camps. They could not share power because Lebanon did not want to give them full citizenship, but most Palestinians in Lebanon were Muslims. Therefore the balance of power was now in the Muslims hands as they dominated the population.(Mackey, 1989) Palestinians lived in the South, in refugee camps or in bases from which guerrillas of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) carried out attacks on neighboring Israel. The PLO, an organization made up of Arabs from Palestine, was formed in 1964 to unite the various Palestinian groups in hopes of creating a "democratic and secular" Palestinian state. With so many ethnic groups it became apparent that Lebanon could not demand political and military impotence from all who entered her frontiers, which would be the cause of much future grief.
The first Lebanese Civil War occurred in 1958, and Lebanese Muslims and Druzes who were inspired by the February 1958 unification of Egypt and Syria instigated it. They stirred up trouble to make Lebanon a member of the new United Arab Republic. It was a political upheaval among the Lebanese themselves over the nature of the Lebanese state.(Bavly, 1984) Although the war took a toll of some 2,000 to 4,000 lives, it was regarded by many as a comic opera, especially when 5,000 United States Marines were landed on the beaches near Beirut and waded ashore among sunbathers and swimmers. The Marines' role was to support the legal Lebanese government against any foreign invasion, specifically from Syria. The Marines were summoned because Fouad Shihab, the commander of the Lebanese army of the time, believing that the army would mutiny and disintegrate if ordered into action, had disobeyed President Camille Chamoun's orders to send the army against Muslim rebels. Thus, Lebanon's army had once more proved unwilling to defend Lebanon's government.(Deeb, 1980)
In 1970, the PLO set up its military and administrative headquarters in West Beirut after the exile of Palestinians from Jordan. The Palestinians were already increasing in numbers since they settled in 1984 and were preparing to fight Israelis. In Beirut, the PLO launched several raids into Israel. The Christian-dominated government of Lebanon responded by attempting to stop any further military action by the PLO, however the Muslims of Beirut defended and offered their sympathy to the PLO.(Rabinovich,1984)
A large number of Palestinians, who were welcomed by Lebanon when the state of Israel was created, settled in Southern Lebanon, an area mal-treated and less fortunate than any other section of the country. In deed Lebanon did not think twice about the welcoming of these Palestinians, as more and more flocked into Southern Lebanon. The people living before the arrival of the Palestinians were mostly Muslim Shiites who became aggravated by the constant Israeli attacks directed to the Palestinians. However since the central government of Lebanon wanted nothing to do with the Israeli-Palestine clash, Lebanese of the South were neglected for many years and this effect took its toll on Lebanon when frustrations rose within the people. This imbalance within the years created a very dangerous environment within an already unsafe Southern Lebanon and did much affect the Civil War, which would eventually hit.
In November 1969, the Lebanese delegation headed by Army Commander General Emile al-Bustani, and the PLO (Palestine Liberation Organization) delegation, headed by Yasir Arafat, chairman of the organization, met in Cairo in the presence of the United Arab Republic Minister of Foreign Affairs Mahmud Riyad, and the War Minister, General Muhammad Fawzi. The two delegations agreed on many principles that ultimately favored the Palestinians and did not help the current situations in Lebanon.(Bavly, 1984) The Arab leaders, however, were tired of the PLO refusing to gather for meetings in the previous 7 months, and the economic and political situation in Lebanon could no longer be tolerated. Therefore president Charles Helou had no choice but to coincide with the agreement. The Cairo Agreement's most appalling principle was that the PLO would have been allowed to be armed in Lebanon. Lebanon was now sliding into dangerous territory.(Bavly, 1984)
One of the immediate causes of the war is the famous bus incident that happened on April 13th, 1975. The leader of the Phalangist party, Pierre Gemayel, was attending a church service while his troops were outside diverting traffic away from the front of the church. A bus loaded with Palestinians arrived and refused to take the diverting route, claiming the one route by the church was the only one they could take. Scuffles arose, and the Phalangists began firing at the bus, killing the driver instantly. There were armed men in the bus who retaliated instantly and killed 3 Phalangists. An hour later Palestinian reinforcements arrived, a shoot-out occurred, and 26 Palestinians were shot dead by Phalangist troops.(Deeb, 1980)
After this incident there was a deceptive two-month ceasefire, which was inevitably broken on June 26th 1975, when after a dispute in a café in which a Muslim was killed, the Greek Catholics clashed with the Muslim Shiites and over a matter of days 50 people were killed and many more wounded.(O'ballance, 1998) Many tried hard to restore order, but by this time the Civil War of Lebanon was well under way. There were many terror acts following this one. From September 14-19, much fighting took place between Christians and Muslims in which over 70 people had been killed and almost 200 injured.(Fisk, 1990)
Israeli-Palestinian fighting in July 1981 was ended by a ceasefire arranged by U.S. President Ronald Reagan's special envoy, Philip C. Habib, and announced on July 24, 1981. The ceasefire was respected during the next 10 months, but a string of incidents, including PLO rocket attacks on northern Israel, led to the June 6, 1982, Israeli ground attack into Lebanon to remove PLO forces. Israeli forces moved quickly through south Lebanon, encircling west Beirut by mid-June and beginning a three-month siege of Palestinian and Syrian forces in the city.(Rabinovich, 1984) Throughout this period, which saw heavy Israeli air, naval, and artillery bombardments of West Beirut, Ambassador Habib worked to arrange a settlement. In August, he was successful in bringing about an agreement for the evacuation of Syrian troops and PLO fighters from Beirut. The agreement also provided for the deployment of a three-nation Multinational Force (MNF) during the period of the evacuation, and by late August, U.S. Marines, as well as French and Italian units, had arrived in Beirut. When the evacuation ended, these units departed. The U.S. Marines left on September 10. In spite of the invasion, the Lebanese political process continued to function, and Bashir Gemayel was elected President in August, succeeding Elias Sarkis. On September 14, however, Bashir Gemayel was assassinated. On September 15, Israeli troops entered West Beirut.
During the next three days, Lebanese militiamen massacred hundreds of Palestinian civilians in the Sabra and Shatila refugee camps in West Beirut, an unpleasant episode in history.(Mackey, 1989) On September 15, 1982, the Israel Defense Forces moved into West Beirut and completely occupied it by the following day. The IDF encircled and sealed Palestinian camps off with troops and tanks. Three units of 50 militiamen, majority Christians, each stood ready in the afternoon of Thursday, September 16, 1982 at the edge of Sabra and Shatila camps awaiting orders from the Israeli military command. At 5:00 p.m. they were sent into the refugee camps in accordance with the agreed program of action and they then commenced an orgy of killing, which lasted until the morning of Saturday, September 18. Bulldozers were used to dig mass graves into which were heaped the bodies of victims that filled the alleys. A number of houses were also bulldozed to cover up the bodies of the victims.(Abraham, 1996) What is known as the Sabra and Shatila Massacre is one of the most barbarous events in recent history. Thousands of unarmed and defenseless Palestinian refugees-old men, women and children-were butchered in an orgy of savage killing. This caused mass discontent between the Palestinians and Lebanese as over 3000 innocent people perished, a quarter of them Lebanese, the rest Palestinian.(Mackey, 1989)
The Lebanese Civil War was caused by numerous political and religious factors. Lebanon was at war for more than 15 years between 1975-1992. The rebuilding that took place after the war is still in the works as Lebanon tries to regain its title as the "Paris of the Middle East". "Pity the nation divided into fragments, each fragment deeming itself a nation." Khalil Gibran put it in the best words.(Fisk, 1990)
Bibliography
Abraham, A.J. The Lebanon War. London: Praeger Publisher, 1996.
Bavly, Dan. Fire in Beirut: Israel's War in Lebanon with the PLO. New York: Stein and
Day Inc., 1984.
Deeb, Marius. The Lebanese Civil War. New York: Praeger Publishers, 1980.
Fisk, Robert. Pity the Nation: Lebanon At War. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990.
Mackey, Sandra. Lebanon: Death of a Nation. New York: Congdin & Weed Inc., 1989.
O'ballance, Edgar. Civil War in Lebanon, 1975-92. London: Macmillan Press Ltd.,
998.
Rabinovich, Itamar. The War for Lebanon, 1970-1983. London: Cornell University Press, 1984.
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