Did European colonialism in Africa invariably have a negative impact upon women?

Once colonial authorities had taken formal control they re-organized traditional frameworks in an attempt to aid civilization and ‘Christianize’ the indigenous populations. This is where conflicts arose; Europeans broke down long-established social frameworks, economic structures, social hierarchies and political constructions. They introduced wage labour, cash cropping, and a tax system similar to that in the west in an attempt to move these people towards progression, yet these new methods impinged on traditional African ideals and contributed to deteriorating circumstances for women.

Sexual divisions of labour were exacerbated as men became the dominant working force; women were perceived as physically and mentally incapable in performing certain tasks and therefore received lower wages than men and were often excluded from certain aspects of everyday life, this common misconception meant women were tied to the household and the burden of agricultural work fell on their shoulders.

Colonization brought with it technological developments especially in areas of industry which increased urban growth across Africa. Initially men were forced to migrate to work by the colonial authorities as they were integrated into this new wage labour economy. In the 1940s a survey was undertaken in the Upper Volta which established that only 40% of the 20,000 male workers had migrated voluntarily, the remaining men had been forced there. This figure is significant in showing the extent of forced labour migration under colonial rule but it is difficult to understand the impact that this had on women.

Feminist historians view the effects of male migration as creating a visible negative impact on women. They centre on issues such as prostitution which they argue was a frequent practice undertaken by women on many of the migrant routes, which were frequently referred to as whore tracks. With the male population migrating women were isolated in societies and became increasingly dependent on their husbands and often fell into traps of cohabitation with men in order to survive. The image of the ‘passive rural widow’ emerges in literature from this time. Yet this view of women marginalization and urbanization as solely a male phenomenon conflicts with the evidence that women were present in cities at this time. Walker observes that in the early 20th century women made up 19% of the urban population in South Africa. Urbanization and labour migration were far from uniform processes and consequently it is difficult to comprehend the true impact which this movement had on society.

One noticeable factor of European influence was that marriage became an increasingly important ritual within African society. Colonial administrators viewed marriage as a means whereby they could control the black African women who in many places were seen as a threat to colonial authority. Moral crisis and population decline were two of the pressing issues facing Europeans. In Uganda, missionaries took a particular interest in the Baganda women who they believed were the key to progression and civilization. In an attempt to control declining fertility rates and rumors of sexual promiscuity the colonial authorities decided to target women in their educational programs and women became objects of scientific inquiry. On the surface huge advancements in medical technology were perceived as beneficial for Baganda women. Yet with these advancements came the loss of privacy, welfare of women and infants was no longer a household issue but instead a matter of national concern. Europeans consequently intervened in women’s private lives in an attempt to regulate reproduction through the use of western practices. These invasive methods instead of aiding emancipation actually limited female freedom as they became guinea pigs on which colonial powers could experiment.

The impact which European presence had on the household was perhaps one of the most important factors, as changing family structures led to transformations in every aspect of society including sexual division of labour, law and politics. With the introduction of colonial administration the geographical and spatial distribution of population was disrupted which upset the traditional idea of the household. In the former Belgian Congo, the colonial administration uprooted societies in order to establish more concentrated villages in an attempt to control the population, this change facilitated tax-collecting and made it easier for the administration to establish better relations with the African people. Domestic organization was overhauled with this western imposition of different living standards. The colonial powers did not attempt to understand the African way of living and in attempting to implement a culture within different social frameworks was bound to lead to tension.

Europeans not only tried to control the private life of African women but also integrated western regimes into public areas causing a complete overhaul of traditional political systems. Colonial powers strengthened the ideology of a patrilineal society where women had limited rights. Under this regime they could not acquire property, they had no rights to inheritance and they did not qualify for legal action. Several schools of thought argue that colonization brought emancipation with developments in education and medical practice along with the suppression of barbaric practices. This may have been the case in some areas but it could be argues especially in the field of politics that women prior to colonization had more political freedom than in any other period. This was certainly the case amongst the Ibgo women in Nigeria. In pre-colonial times the Ibgo women shared in a dual-sex political system which enabled them to hold particular political rights and even challenge certain male ideals. Gender was not a defining criterion in this region. Disputes were settled in village assemblies with discussions until the best possible solution was found. It must be noted that men did have more power than women but what is important is that women were not limited at all in their political rights. British presence however provided a turning of the tide for women, they imposed their Victorian attitudes on the Ibgo women extolling the ‘women’s place is in the home’ ideology. Judith van Allen argues that ‘Colonial officers and missionaries failed to see the political roles that women played in these institutions. Since they did not appreciate women’s political institutions they made no effort to ensure women’s participation in the modern institutions they were trying to foster.’

This was one of the biggest problems with European colonisation, the colonial powers misunderstood the situation they faced and subsequently dealt with it the wrong way. It was a matter of the difference between perception and reality. The British in this situation completely underestimated the autonomy which the Ibgo women already held, they didn’t intent to repress women they merely misunderstood the situation. The results were disastrous; the Ibgo women believed they could challenge the colonial authorities, a rare occurrence through out Africa merely due to the perception of European superiority. A rebellion ensued and women came together to fight against their oppressive rulers. Nevertheless the women achieved little, even in history it has been written up not as a gendered rebellion against women oppression or as the ‘Woman’s War’ which is the title the Ibgo women gave it. The British coined the term the ‘Aba riots’ which conveys the extent to which they were able to manipulate the situation through language in an attempt to show that the European’s had not specifically targeted women. This misinterpretation and manipulation of terminology can be seen in many sources and it makes it difficult to separate the perception from the reality.

Education is another public agenda which has embedded views of female inferiority. Colonialists and missionaries used gender as a criterion for deciding who would receive formal education; it is consequently not surprising that figures demonstrate that women outnumber men in the illiterate population. This caused further problems as women were unable to compete against men for the best jobs. This exclusion is again rooted in Europe’s vision of the inferior women which is mirrored in their practice and treatment of African women.

The impact of direct colonial rule at this time was a matter of perception and reality. It must be understood that the only experience Africans had of Europeans was from the ones they were in direct contact with. In some areas this experience may have been positive but in others Europeans were considered to have a negative impact on society. On an important note the move towards direct rule did not mean that all Africans came into contact with Europeans and subsequently life for some communities altered very little especially in the initial process of colonisation. In historiographies colonial administrators may be viewed as disrupting the African way off life and implementing their western values in a culture which could not fully adapt to them, but on the ground and in reality the negative impact of women was not as highly extended as sources suggest. It is undeniable that there are several cases where women were oppressed but it is difficult to generalize such a complex situation. For a continent the size of Africa it is hard to achieve an overall picture and analyze the extent to which European penetration left a negative legacy on women in African society. Patterns differed from country to country but even on a regional and local level where in some instances Africans had no contact with colonial authorities. In many respects the result of colonisation and the ensuing impact on women in Africa are all comparable.

To conclude with a generalised analysis is complex but the significant variety of sources suggests that women suffered from subordination as a result of the application of western patriarchal values on Africa. There were places which perhaps were not touched by these social changes, but in general the political, social and economic autonomy of women after European colonisation declined.

Bibliography

Allen, Judith van, 1972 "Sitting on a Man": Colonialism and the Lost Political Institutions of Igbo Women, Canadian Journal of African Studies.

Allman, Jean, 1996 Rounding up Spinsters: Gender Chaos and Unmarried Women in Colonial Asante, The Journal of African History Cambridge University Press.

Allman, J., Geiger, S., Musisi, N., Women in African Colonial Histories: An Introduction, Indiana University Press.

Barnes, Theresa, 2002, ‘Virgin Territory? Travel and Migration by African Women in Twentieth-Century Southern Africa’ in Allman, J., Women in African Colonial Histories, Indiana University Press.

Cutrufelli, Maria Rosa, 1983 Women of Africa: Roots of Oppression, London: Zed Press.

Hafkin, N., Bay, E., (1976), Women in Africa Stanford, Introduction.

Hunt, Nancy Rose, 1997, Gendered Colonialisms in African History, Oxford: Blackwell.

Musisi, N., 2002, ‘The Politics of Perception or Perception as Politics? Colonial and Missionary Representations of Baganda Women, 1900-1945’ in Allman, J., Women in African Colonial Histories, Indiana University Press.

Robertson, C., Berger, I., (eds.), 1986, Women and Class in Africa, New York.

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