At 2:00 AM on April 17th, 1961, the secret invasion of Cuba by American forces began. The Bay of Pigs invasion consisted of 1500 men, all controlled by Dulles' still-young CIA. Castro's response was quick and total. The troops were blasted by heavy resistance. Finally, the Americans retreated in failure. The New York Times began publishing articles about an operation in Cuba just two days after the invasion had failed. The CIA could not keep a secret. It is believed that Cuba and the Soviets knew of the invasion before it began. As a result of the fiasco, Dulles was forced to take the blame and resign from his post atop the CIA in November of 1961. As of the publication of this web page, Fidel Castro is still in power today despite further but smaller efforts by the CIA to eliminate his authority.
It is said that the world has avoided nuclear war by a matter of minutes. In 1962, Cuba came to the center of attention once again when JFK discovered on October 16 that Khrushchev was placing offensive nuclear missile sites inside Cuba. These missiles would be able to destroy targets anywhere in America with very little advance notice. A naval blockade of Cuba was set up and the Soviets were warned that no more Soviet ships were allowed to Cuba until the missile sites were dismantled. The decision was therefore placed in the hands of Khrushchev. He could either back down or he could test Kennedy's resolve by pushing through the blockade. Not wanting to face the possibility of nuclear attack, the Soviets ordered their ships to return. However, a communication breakdown occurred and the Russian ships continued with their previous orders to attack any aggressors. By sheer luck, the Soviet boats passed between the American blockade ships undetected. The crisis ended and the missile silos in Cuba were removed. In an unpublicized agreement, JFK agreed to Khrushchev's condition of the removal of U.S. missiles in Turkey and Greece. In effect, both Russia and the U.S. removed its missile positions near the other's homeland. For a few hours, however, no one knew what Khrushchev would do and what would happen if he pushed on.
The Truman Doctrine declared that the United States had superiority over the Western hemisphere. Communism shall not be tolerated west of Europe. The Soviets were left to fight for the Eastern half of the globe. In 1968, Leonid Brezhnev, successor of Khrushchev, declared a Russian counterpart to Truman's declaration. The Brezhnev Doctrine said that no Communist state in the Eastern Bloc shall ever change. In Prague, Czechoslovakia, an attempt was made to shift the government towards a democracy. Brezhnev showed his dedication to the Doctrine by placing a large force of Soviet tanks in the city to suppress the government. Riots broke out and the Soviets were ordered to open fire. Over one thousand residents were killed and tens of thousands were arrested, including Communists who supported some reform. Most of the victims were college students who believed in democracy. Although the Brezhnev Doctrine was the Soviet counterpart to the Truman Doctrine, it was in many ways more violent.
Brezhnev supported a policy of re-Stalinization. Having attained power through the anti-Khrushchev sentiments in the Communist Party, Brezhnev declared that the ideas of Stalin would be brought back and that the citizens of Russia and the Eastern Bloc would be under the control of the government once again. As a result, the tensions of the cold war re-ignited and the progress of the late 1950s was erased.
North Vietnam's invasion of South Vietnam was a relatively small conflict in south Asia. The reason that the United States became involved was because of its dedication to the containment of Communism. It was the longest conflict in American history and had a vast political importance for many American politicians. It was a war that the nation could not give up, but an issue that it did not want to pursue. This conflict of interests made the war a failure.
Communist forces eventually conquered South Vietnam and the policy of containment proved to be somewhat half-hearted. The Vietnam war proved that the United States was growing unsure of itself and its policies abroad. Perhaps America no longer wanted to worry about what was happening across the globe. Isolationist feelings made the nation more interested in improving itself than in containing Communism.
The most visible part of the cold war was the arms race. Massive and expensive militarization movements on the part of both nations involved caused a new psychology to develop. Mutually Assured Destruction (appropriately know as MAD) was the philosophy that both nations had the power to destroy each other completely in the event of an attack. The theory was based on three ideas. One: both nations have enough weapons do destroy the other, two: both nations can detect a first strike before it arrives, and three: both nations are able to respond adequately before they are hit by the first strike. The invention and perfection of the Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM) was the beginning of MAD. The ICBM was a creation made possible by the Space Race.
The aim of both nations was to decrease the amount of response time that was inherent in their nuclear defense system. The best way to do this was to put missiles as close to the other country as possible. The United States placed nuclear missiles in Turkey and the Soviets attempted to place missiles in Cuba. These sites did not remain, but were ideal for eliminating lengthy response times. The second best solution came with the invention of the SLBM, or submarine launched ballistic missile. This weapon was able to fire a nuclear missile from an undetected location immediately offshore of the enemy's coastline. This missile would arrive at its target in a matter of minutes, possibly eliminating enemy response. SLBMs were a very dangerous weapon because they created the possibility of a nuclear victory.
The other method of eliminating response time was by way of detection. At first, spy planes were used to fly over Russia and photograph missile sites within its borders. Shortly after World War Two, an American U-2 spy plane was shot down in Russia. It had been photographing inside the Soviet Union when it was surprised by a surface-to-air missile. The pilot was taken prisoner and the plane was dismantled for help in developing Soviet technology. Replacing the U-2 in the late 1960s was the SR-71, a spy plane that flew higher and faster than any missile. Officially, the plane was used to fly extremely high along (but not inside) Russia's borders and, using extremely high-powered photography equipment, take pictures inside the country.
Sputnik was the first man-made satellite to orbit the Earth. People around the world could turn on their radio and hear the little satellite emit a constant beeping sound. Little did the listener know that Sputnik was also the first spy satellite. Spy planes were no longer needed as photographic equipment from the satellites was able to read license plates on cars. The technology was incredible. Eventually, the technology was used for good as the methods and devices trickled down to the scientific community. Today, the decommissioned SR-71 spy plane is used by NASA for upper-atmosphere research.
The concept of deterrence, or MAD, was effective. Though the Cold War came close to "going hot", it never did because it was not feasible. There was no issue that any country was willing to kill itself over. The threat of nuclear missiles was not in their use, but in their misuse or disposal. The real problem with a nuclear weapon was that it could be accidentally fired or used in a situation of confusion.
Improvements in conventional warfare also increased greatly during this time. Fast-attack submarines were developed to seek out and destroy the large nuclear missile subs hiding in the ocean. Attack planes were built and perfected in order to combat enemy bombers. Anti-missile systems, such as the Star Wars laser concept, were tried and built in order to reduce the number of missiles that reached Ground Zero. The militaries received an amazing budget so that they could better be prepared to fight the enemy. Conventional weapons were developed for situations such as Vietnam where nuclear warfare would not be used, or for anti-nuclear purposes, such as fast-attack submarines.
The militarization of both nations was an extension of each county's fear. There was always the fear of a surprise attack. There were even some who supported the use of a surprise attack. Bomb shelters were built in basements and drills were performed in schools. The fear of the ever-present enemy was an exhausting ordeal. People identified themselves by their nations and separated themselves from those that were the enemy. Identity was based on nationalism, a concept that ignited World War One and World War Two. Nationalism, a dangerous means of identifying oneself, was the driving force behind militarization. No red-blooded American would allow his country to be attacked. In order to make sure of this, the government used all available technology to defend the nation. It was a very dangerous time.
The Cold War extended beyond foreign policy and reached into the spirits of America and the Soviet Union. Fear of subversion, espionage, and Communist sympathizers ran rampant in America. Senator Joseph McCarthy from Wisconsin exemplified the distrust in the United States and gained power because of it. Communist "witch hunts" led to unsubstantiated attacks on innocent people across the nation and in many different industries.
The House Committee for Un-American Activities was responsible for investigating subversive citizens in the United States. Many trials of famous individuals were televised across the country and led people to believe that internal sedition was a real problem in America. The attacks were often in conflict with the Bill of Rights, but continued unopposed out of a fear of Communism.
Alger Hiss was a victim of McCarthy's Committee. A worker for the State Department in 1938, Hiss was accused by Whittaker Chambers as being a Communist sympathizer. Chambers, a Time Magazine editor and member of the Communist Party, claimed that Hiss gave him documents from the State Department so that he may pass them to Russia. Chambers produced a barrage of evidence against Alger Hiss, including secret documents hidden in a pumpkin at Chamber's farm which were shown to Senator Richard Nixon. Hiss was charged with perjury for claiming that he never knew Chambers. He was convicted and served 44 months of a 5 year prison sentence. He claimed that all of Chamber's evidence had been forged. This case led McCarthy to attack the State Department heavily. It was never proven that any of his claims against the Department were true.
Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were accused of supplying information about the atomic bomb to the Russians. Julius allegedly received information from his brother-in-law, David Greenglass (who worked on the Manhattan Project) about the atomic bomb. Julius, a member of the Communist Party, was executed for espionage along with his wife on June 19, 1953. Greenglass was sentenced to 15 years in prison. The execution sparked world-wide protest by those who felt that execution was an injustice and that the Rosenbergs were not properly convicted.
It must be noted, however, that Senator Joseph McCarthy was not always wrong. After accusing Klaus Fuchs, a German-born physicist who worked on the Manhattan Project, Fuchs fled to Great Britain, where he was caught giving information about the atomic bomb to the Russians. After his prison sentence, Fuchs fled to East Germany where he lived until 1988, one year before the Berlin Wall fell.
In 1950, the McCarren Act was signed. It stated that any organizations associated with Communism must register with the US attorney general. Members of any such organization were denied US passports, were blacklisted from government or defense contractor jobs, and were considered for detention. The bill allowed detention camps, not much different from Nazi concentration camps, to be set up in emergency situations in order to hold Communist sympathizers. Eisenhower vetoed the bill, calling it a mockery of the Bill of Rights. Congress outvoted the veto and the bill passed. Eventually, after the fall of McCarthyism, the bill was ignored. It was effectively dismantled in the early 1970s.
Under Eisenhower's administration, McCarthy rose to head of the Government Operations Committee and its permanent investigations subcommittee. His power and public exposure was dangerously high. McCarthyism spread into the culture of America. Neighbors accused neighbors of being Communists. The famous question, "are you, or have you ever been, a member of the Communist Party?" was asked of thousands of people. Most were blacklisted because they would not dignify such anti-Constitutional activities. Perhaps it is ironic that McCarthy's accusations were in opposition to the ideas behind the Bill of Rights. Perhaps McCarthy himself was un-American. He was quite nearly fascist.
Joseph McCarthy targeted General George Marshall, orchestrater of the Marshall Plan, for his charity towards Europe. His frequent accusations towards the administrations of Roosevelt, Truman, and Eisenhower had caused some concern over his intentions. In 1954, McCarthy attacked the army. In the Army-McCarthy hearings, the Wisconsin senator was unable to show any real evidence of Communism in the armed services. His credibility fell sharply after that point, and McCarthyism faded quickly. It was discovered that McCarthy had been an alcoholic. The nation realized that it had been fooled by McCarthy and his House Committee for Un-American Activities. Although a fear of Communism maintained until the end of the Cold War, the search for subversive citizens was limited to reasonable suspects.
The competition with the Russians extended beyond foreign policies. Missile technology became an intriguing subject as scientists in both the United States and Russia decided to push towards space exploration.
Rocketry began with a man named Robert Goddard. This American scientist invented the more useful liquid fueled rocket. His patent was purchased by Germany from the United States patent office for 35 cents. This information was then used at a location called Peenemunde to build the infamous German V-2 rockets which were launched towards London. The first rockets were without guidance and often landed in the North Sea or in farmland outside of London. As technology improved, so too did accuracy. The rocket became a useful tool. After the war, Russia captured many V-2 scientists and equipment. The United States reacted by capturing German scientists as well. The Space Race had begun.
The United States Army launched Explorer I in 1958. Other branches of the military began rocket research programs. Fierce competition between the services caused internal problems and the Space Race stalled in America. Soon, the Russians had launched a chimpanzee into space. In 1957, Sputnik, the first Satellite, was orbiting the Earth. By the end of 1961, Russia had put Yuri Gagarin into space and slapped the pride of America square in the face. JFK reacted by declaring in a speech at the Texas A&M commencement ceremonies that the United States would put a man on the moon by the end of the decade. After a tough nine years of repeated Soviet successes, the Untied States took the lead with Apollo 11. The 5 billion dollar project resulted in Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin taking the first steps on the moon in 1969.
The nation began to change, however. In 1968, youth revolts had taken a toll on America and the nation began to head into a new era. The Space Race had been won. The people and the government stopped directing attention and money to NASA. Even though the Cold War continued with the ever-expensive Arms Race, the push for exploration died. NASA began to slouch with failures. A boost was given when the Space Shuttle was developed, but the Challenger disaster once again raised doubts about the safety and utility of space exploration. Competition with Russia became a military affair once again.
The Cold War was complex and multi-faceted. There were many conflicts, many ideas, and many emotions. It was a new era in history that has no equivalent. Never before has the world become so polarized and so powerful. The entire globe became a playing field in a vast political struggle. The struggle brought people together like never before. The result was a revealing of identity that is unparalleled in modern times.
The Cold War Could Have Been Prevented
Franklin Roosevelt gave Eastern Europe to the Russians at Yalta. His objectives were idealistic because of the location of World War Two. American troops were sent to Europe to fight in a major war. America was only attacked once during World War Two, and that was by Japan. What does this mean? It means that Americans fought the war but did not feel the war. When Roosevelt negotiated at Yalta, he did not feel the pain of a populous destroyed by fire bombing or Nazi death camps. He was not practical enough. The European nations, on the other hand, craved revenge. They wanted reparations for the damages and a guarantee that such an event could never happen again. Roosevelt did not give them what they wanted. The re-establishment of Eastern Europe was therefore controlled by the manipulative Stalin. It is almost amazing that he didn't giggle when he signed the agreement at Yalta because he knew that democracy was not going to happen. As soon as the politicians were gone, tanks and troops took Eastern Europe and the buffer zone was created. The countries were turned into economic wastelands without value in order to protect Russia. Just like the other European countries, Russia wanted to make sure it was never invaded again. Roosevelt let him do this through horrible means.
Could the Cold War have been prevented? Yes. If Roosevelt had taken advantage of his negotiating position at Yalta, he could have prevented the Soviets from building its dangerous puppet states and buffer zones. Without these, Russia would have been much more vulnerable along its borders. Even more than that, however, Russia would have been isolated from Europe by distance. With advancements in technology, the Soviet Union was fast becoming connected with Europe. World War Two completed that connection as Russia's reach extended half way across the continent. No more was the giant nation isolated from the circus of world politics. It was in the center ring.
Had Russia not been a part of the political struggles of Europe, its power and interest in the rest of the world would have declined after World War Two. Even with its nuclear capabilities, Russia would have been much less likely to use such a device (or even build it to such extremes) had the country's political involvement declined to pre-war levels. It was the iron curtain that brought Russia to the limelight and it was Roosevelt who sold Stalin the land on which he could build his buffer zone. It's almost ironic, in retrospect, that a buffer zone brought Russia closer to the West.
How A Lack of Knowledge is More Powerful than Knowledge
What is fear? Fear is the feeling of insecurity and danger found in an unfamiliar situation. It is present in the absence of awareness. What can not be seen will be feared. When McCarthy stepped forward and claimed that a subversive force of underground communists was controlling the United States, people became afraid because this politician proposed that the very sacred ground of America was tainted with unseen forces and unknown control. The result was predictable and inevitable.
McCarthy's entire claim was based on the absence of evidence. He pointed at the source of power in the United States as the source of corruption against the United States. It made sense. The people would never know about subversion because it is inherently subconscious, unseen, and easily covered up. This is the driving force behind the popularity of conspiracy theories and the X-Files. If the government is doing wrong, we'd never know about it. That's why there's no evidence. By creating its existence through ranting and accusations, McCarthy invented national fear. This is the most dangerous type of power that can be achieved (power through fear.) McCarthy had control of the nation for a short while because of it. Finally, logic prevailed and people realized that indeed no evidence existed to back his claims and that most of his accusations had been unfounded. Fortunately, McCarthy was unable to gain too much power through his attacks. Had the United States been in a severe economic crisis, the reaction towards this extremist would have been more favorable. Such was the case in Germany, 1930, when Hitler came to power and blamed the problems of the country on the Jews.
A lesson must be learned. We must realize that we are easily the victims of fear-based politics. It is easy to fear the unknown and it is easy to create that fear in others.
Exploring Space and Venting Hot Air
The Space Race was a messy time for America. The objective of the entire era was to find the next frontier and conquer it before the other country. What started out as a project of scientists turned quickly into a battle between politicians. This is an inevitable result of the destruction of the scientific/political barrier. Among the goals of science is the safety of man. No proper scientific experiment should be performed without the appropriate safety concerns. The pressure by the government took that element away. The Space Race was a political struggle with militaristic drives. Science was left behind. Very few people voiced objection towards the safety of space flight or the political reasons behind its continuation. Americans wanted to beat the Soviets as much as their government. This tells us that America would rather identify itself through competition than through proper exploration and genuine curiosity about the universe. This could be a result of the capitalist economy or it could be the result of propagandist displays of progress and glorious achievement put forth by NASA and the U.S. Government. I tend to think the latter had a more significant role.
Imperialism Revisited
The foreign policy of both the United States and the Soviet Union was aimed at increasing the sphere of influence of their own nation while decreasing that of the other. All along the border between the two spheres of influence, tense situations arose and were battled over. The entire situation is reminiscent of the Imperialism, which put the powers of Europe against each other one hundred years ago. The only difference between Imperialism and Spheres of Influence is that there is no profit in an ally. The United States and Russia were simply trying to be bigger and better than the other. The insecurity of both nations drove the competition onward. From Berlin to Korea to Vietnam to Cuba, the two nations fought hard to gain an inch of influence.
Like kids on a playground, the nations issued declarations and threats about their personal space. The predominant feelings were envy, fear, and insecurity. These feelings led to competition in all things, including weapons. That is the foundation of the Cold War.
The Psychology of the Cold War
George Orwell often wrote about governments oppressing its people through psychology. The one concept that kept the citizens of Orwell's hypothetical countries dedicated to the causes of the governments was nationalism. Nationalism allows people to unite behind a cause and identify an enemy. Those are dangerous concepts. Unification breeds security and a desire to take risks. The formation of an enemy gives that group of unified people something to act against. Orwell showed this in his novels and America showed this in the Cold War.
An ever-present enemy gives a mob of citizens a scapegoat to blame for the ills of the nation which were caused by the nation. McCarthyism is the real life example of this concept. Insecurities can be blamed on "Communist subversion" without any evidence because the rest of the nation supports the claim. Mob mentality allows injustices. The Cold War allows a mob mentality.
It is lucky that the mob mentality of the Cold War didn't lead to an overly aggressive action. The possibility of an unprovoked first strike was always present because of the Cold War mentality. The only thing that prevented such a strike was the guaranteed counter-strike. If it weren't for Mutually Assured Destruction, the world would be a very different place.
Bibliography
“The Parallel History Project” -
Peter Calvocoressi - “Politica Mondiala dupa 1945” – Ed. ALL, 2001
George Orwell – “Ferma Animalelor”
J. R. R. Tolkien – “Lord Of The Rings” (moral support)