The roles of separate individuals in establishing and developing the Portuguese overseas empire is important to consider; in two areas, North Africa and the Indies, the roles of Prince Henrique and the viceroys of India, Almeida and Albuquerque. From the period of 1415-1460 Prince Henrique is considered to be a vital figure in terms of propelling the process of empire building, but at the same time superfluous when considering the scope of overseas empire. Dan O’Sullivan argues that Henrique provided an important stimulus and patronage for many. The British foreign office concurs with this traditional view; ‘The Portuguese colonial empire owes its inception and early development to the enterprise of Dom Henrique’. Evidence that without Henrique little would have been achieved is countered easily by a more convincing argument. It is disputed by the view set forth by Vitorino Magalhaes Godinho, who argues an annaliste interpretation of history that more important factors ran behind Prince Henrique; such as the importance of Portuguese society, the European bullion crisis and the decline of wheat farming. Citing him as a pirate rather than an explorer; ‘almost all, if not all, the voyages promoted by the Infante up to 1434 must have been corsair expeditions which Zurara subsequently transformed into attempts to round Bojador’. He argues that Prince Henrique was merely a man among many others who was involved in establishing and developing the Portuguese overseas empire but not a driving force. In putting Henrique into context Godinho produces a more convincing argument, Portuguese empires extended not just in North Africa where Henrique concentrated but across from Brazil to the Indies and the empires that arose created a strong solution to many of the issues that Godinho mentions, much of this empire was also established following the death of Prince Henrique In 1460. The fact that many of the issues pre-empire were solved due to the expansion of empire leads to an inference that it was these that promoted establishment and development of Portuguese empire. Godinho also challenges the perception that Zurara is a reliable source surrounding Henrique, when it is as conceivable that he had the work commissioned for his image only. So it is more convincing that other reasons were involved than the simple explanation that one man was the precursor to the establishment and development of Portuguese overseas empires. The influence of Prince Henrique is insignificant as both an individual and in terms of royal patronage. It is more convincing that the Portuguese economy was a greater driving force as Godinho argues.
Activities in the Indies by Francisco de Almeida and Afonso de Albuquerque, arguably two great men, created a more profitable opportunity than North Africa for the Portuguese crown and led to a redirection of their energies as such. The early Portuguese explorers of this period, such as Vasco da Gama and Bartolomeu Dias are less important in the establishment and development of empire building because they merely discovered the routes and areas; they did not act as colonisers to the regions. Their achievements, though not usually directly involved in the establishment of empire, laid the foundations for later empire. It is important first to decide which of the two great viceroys were more important in terms of establishment and development of Portuguese overseas empire before tackling the impact of individuals. Dan O’Sullivan argues that Albuquerque was the most significant viceroy of India that the Portuguese crown appointed:
His years in office were crucial in the development of Portuguese power in the East and he was perhaps the ablest naval strategist of his day, a ruthless and effective leader of men… Later viceroys… were a fairly indifferent lot, who failed to hold their unruly subordinates in the discipline to which Albuquerque had subjected them.
Afonso de Albuquerque, the second viceroy, though relied on the success of his predecessor Almeida. The victory at the battle of Diu in 1509 under Almeida secured the region under Portuguese monopoly in the following 20 years for Albuquerque. He was certainly the most significant individual in terms of the establishment of the Portuguese Indian Empire, but it took Albuquerque to develop it into a more profitable, sustainable venture. The achievements of Albuquerque are more significant in terms of development, Almeida’s policy required arrangement with land powers to make use of ports. The extension of Portuguese empire by Albuquerque was based on a number of factors that underpinned his motives. As an autonomous governor he was able to loosely interpret his regimento*. Albuquerque’s objectives involved the establishment of eastern empire further to a monopoly on trade desired by the crown to a land-based empire. Ventures under him included the capture of the port-city of Goa to gain monopoly of war horse supplies and Malacca for its strategic worth. So although the role of individuals was an important factor in the establishment of Portuguese empire, the transcending aims of economic gain and the continuation of the crusading tradition, even in the Indies held more significance. This method of control and authority over the Indian Ocean through military force in capturing key ports and using a series of fortresses though was a direct consequence of the role Albuquerque played. But besides the strong governorship of India’s viceroys it was the Portuguese settlers who became immersed in the local culture encouraging trade, prosperity and control of not only the official, but also the unofficial empire of merchants and private explorers. Putting this in the context of one hundred years, though being not involved until the mid-point of this period, it is vital not to overstate their significance and importance and their true impact was greatly reduced in importance to the establishment and development of Portuguese overseas empire.
The roles of the Viceroys of India, although seeming to be autonomous leaders following a loose guideline set forth by the crown, were influenced by their religious fervour and in their clear economic aims as evidenced by their captured ports. The development of Eastern Portuguese Empire was not as a result of the viceroys of India, but was a product of the methods adopted by Albuquerque and the Portuguese settlers for other reasons as previously stated. When putting this into the context of the entire period these two significant men covered a period of twenty years only. When also taking into account the role of Prince Henrique, as a pioneer, the impact of individuals’ actions was limited. But the two viceroys can be credited with the establishment of the Eastern Empire. Its development and the control of the region were due to the policies of the two men. The time of expansion under the two viceroys was of greater significance than royal patronage throughout the entire period.
The religious fervour, extending from the Reconquista was a key factor to the initial spread of empire for the Portuguese. This is evidenced in the crowns desire to conquer areas of North Africa and Ceuta in 1415; ‘the king himself was an ardent crusader’. That the true ambition for the Portuguese, especially Joao I was the spread of Christianity. The impact and influence of religion pervaded through this period, extending under Albuquerque in the east. And it is argued that the church was a more powerful governing force in the Portuguese colonies than Lisbon. But this argument is not substantiated by evidence to support that the church was a significant governor of provinces, rather just an organisation with the single aim of spreading Catholicism. Religion played a strong role as a precursor to empire that triggered its expansion in the motives of early individuals and the encouragement from the church, it served to augment the political authorities’ power. Favourable Papal Bulls of the Romanus Pontifex and the treaty of Tordesillas encouraged empire in its establishment but its development was less influenced by religion. The single piece of evidence for development by the influence of religion is the conversion of locals to Christianity especially in the example of the kingdom of the Congo.
Religious zeal was a factor that permeated through the period and influenced a number of events from the empires early establishment to convert locals to the targets to plunder or conquer of overseas empire; for instance Albuquerque’s red sea strategy to end Egyptian incursion into the Indian Ocean. It is also viewed by some historians’ as a driving factor behind the actions of individuals, Disney writes of Prince Henrique; ‘he was also obsessed with the religious struggle against Islam.’ On the other hand O’Sullivan puts emphasis on their desire for fame and glory; ‘the desire for fame was more pronounced than either Christian missionary zeal or even the search for gold.’ Although the two disagree, neither is particularly convincing but both can be accepted. Religious zeal was a transcending factor that cannot be ignored for its significance but in comparison to royal patronage it is a less convincing argument and even less so to economic considerations to the establishment and development of Portuguese overseas empires.
J. H Parry argues that all economic considerations were heavily reinforced and underlined by the promptings of religious zeal. That economic gain was a secondary reason to the desire of the Portuguese to convert the populace of its empire. But on the other hand Charles Boxer argues the opposite; ‘the quest for guinea gold was seen reinforced by the quest for Prester John’. From a map of Portuguese overseas empire both can be argued to be correct. But as one key example, the Portuguese followed the path of trade routes in Southern Africa; following their capture of Sofala the gold route moved north to Angoche and to there the Portuguese followed. So central to the establishment and development of the central ports of Portuguese overseas empire was the trade routes that they would provide. First and foremost, its early expansion into North Africa was driven by the want to tap into the trans-Saharan gold trade; the reason for the discovery of a sea route to India was to access the spice trade and at Goa for war horses. Although Brazil was discovered at the turn of the sixteenth century, mid-way in this period, it was not taken seriously as a colony by the Portuguese crown due to the perception that it was lacking in any natural resources or potential; offering little in comparison to the riches of the East. The economic drive for the Portuguese empire was continuous throughout this period, being accepted as early as Ceuta in 1415 for North African Wheat and then in 1515 at the capture of Hormuz by Albuquerque to control the sea trade through the Persian Gulf. The economic opportunity was an integral and central influence on the establishment of Portuguese empire and its development was also fuelled by the economic prospects.
The development of empire was for the most part in the form of the unofficial empire under private traders and colonists; almost entirely separated from the crown. These private traders had one clear aim; to create profit. The nature and development of the West African and Brazilian economy was based on the slave trade conducted by private individuals. This was done partly with the blessing of the monarchy; in 1462, all authority of the African coast was handed over from the crown to its colonists. This was a crucial move away from royal patronage following the death if Prince Henrique and is clear evidence of the decline of its importance in overseas empire and saw a clear shift away from the significance of royal patronage. The Portuguese empire developed where the economy boomed. The contract of Fernao Gomes in 1469 from the crown is the first example of the influence of the possible economic gains to be had from establishing and developing an overseas empire. From that point the importance of financial gain maintained and grew its significance through to 1550 and beyond.
The development of the Estado Da India was to secure control of eastern trades routes, requiring the purchasing of a license from the Portuguese crown. It is a strong piece of evidence toward reasoning that commercial factors were the most significant due to its sheer size. Its enforcement was maintained by the sale of these licenses through new professional standing armies throughout the region and the construction of feitorias and fortalezas. This process developed the Portuguese Indian Empire from the early 1500s through to 1550. It succeeded in ‘seeming inexorable growth’. The Estado Da India although formally under the direction of the crown was an autonomous organisation which aimed to achieve economic as well as political domination of the Indian Ocean and developed the Portuguese Indian Empire to resemble a close-knit shoreline empire that governed the trade routes of the east. In considering the Estado Da India within the context of the entire period its significance must not be overstated; being of more importance toward the end of the period rather than the beginning and is merely an extension as an economic cause.
But, this domination would not have been so pronounced without the development gap between Portugal and her subjects throughout the world; ‘The Portuguese were first to recognise the gun rather than the foot soldier as the most effective weapon in naval warfare.’ Technological advances were certainly strong advantages to the establishment of the Portuguese empire. It was the advantage over the Moors in 1415 that allowed the Portuguese to capture Ceuta with cannon. It was the transfer of cannon to the Wattasid nation in 1515 that prevented Portuguese advancement and led to the policy of entrenchment along the North African coast where their navy could be engaged. The advantage for the Portuguese of their technology became obsolete by the latter half of this period. The naval battle at Diu in 1509 was won on the strength of greater technology in weaponry that led to the circumstances and context which allowed the Portuguese to dominate the Indian Ocean; it is the last piece of evidence that the Portuguese took advantage of their technology. The significance of superior technology had little influence on the development of the Portuguese overseas empire, and it declined toward the end of these years; ‘the technological gap was not nearly so wide as between the Spaniards and their empire’. Spanish territories in Central and Southern America were populated by people with little technology, whereas the Portuguese engaged with some of the most advanced civilisations. The impact of technology was certainly an enabling factor to the Portuguese empire, providing access to the areas that were colonised through more advanced vessels and navigational methods under Da Gama, Dias and others, but in the context of establishing and developing overseas empire it was rather insignificant and its impact was greatly reduced throughout the period of time. Due to this fact the impact of the technological gap enjoyed by the Portuguese over their opponents becomes increasingly less important, and obsolete early on in the fifteenth century, conversely it served to prevent the Portuguese from extending their empire further, limiting them rather than enabling them to expand.
The role of each of these separate factors engaged within the establishment and development of the separate Portuguese empires across the world fluctuated significantly in their importance. Though transcending them all was the desire for wealth and economic gain. The areas targeted for empire were rich in wealth, either in North Africa for grain and slaves, India for the spice trade, and when it became known Brazil and South America for raw materials. Wherever the resource was, the Portuguese followed as in the case of Sofala to Angoche in the gold trade. Although religion can be seen as an underlying factor, the Eastern Portuguese society took on some aspects of the Caste system in order to maintain control in the form of Prazo lordships. The technological advantage became obsolete very early within this period and was not as significant as for the Spanish. The economic success achieved from the Portuguese overseas empire provided respite to the rapid decline of Portugal in Western Europe. Although royal patronage was a strong facilitating cause to the establishment and development of Portuguese overseas empire it provided the opportunity for economic gain which swiftly overcame royal patronage as the most significant factor to the establishment and development of Portuguese overseas empires.
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