In the Roman political world of the sixties the dominance of
the optimates was challenged by Pompey and Crassus. The optimates,
led by Quintus Lutatius Catulus and Lucius Licinius Lucullus , were
chiefly men whose careers had been made by Sulla. Pompey and Crassus
were consuls in 70 BC and had rescinded the most offensively
reactionary measures of Sulla’s legislation. During Pompey’s absence
from 67 to 62 BC during his campaigns against the Mediterranean
pirates, Mithridates, and Crassus, his jealous rival. Caesar married
Ponpeia after Cornelia’s death and was appointed aedile in 65 BC As
aedile, Caesar returned to Marius’ trophies to their former place of
honor in the Capitol, thus laying claim to leadership of the
populares.
When Caesar was a praetor, he supported a tribune who wanted
Pompey recalled to restore order in Rome. As a result, Caesar was
suspended from office for a period and antagonized Catulus. Before
leaving Rome to govern Further Spain for a year, Caesar divorced his
wife Pompeia because of the allegation that she had been implicated in
the offense of Publius Clodius. The latter was then awaiting trial
for breaking into Caesar’s house the previous December disguised as a
woman at the festival of the Bona Dea, which no man is allowed to
attend.
After his return from a successful year administrating Spain
Caesar was elected consul for 59 BC through political alliance with
Pompey and Crassus . This alliance was called the first triumvirate.
Caesar’s purpose was to gain a big military command. Pompey for his
part sought the ratification of his Eastern settlement and land
allotments for his discharged troops. Crassus sought a revision of
the contract for collecting taxes in the province of Asia. An
agrarian bill authorizing the purchase of land for Pompey’s veterans
was passed in January of 59 BC at a disorderly public assembly which
Caesar’s fellow consul Calpurnius Bibulus, was thrown from the
platform and his consular insignia were broken. Bibulus tried to stop
Caesar and his supporters from passing any further law but was only
able to postpone the creation of the new laws by saying that the skies
would not permit it because there was stormy weather and they were
very superstitious. Caesar disregarded Bibulus’ behavior and the
remainder of the legislative program of the triumvirate was carried
through. As a result of this action Caesar and his friends incurred
bitter attacks. Their political opponents continued to claim that the
whole of the legislation was unconstitutional and invalid.
Caesar had secured for five years the governorship of three
provinces. The provinces were Cisalpine Gaul , Transalpine Gaul , and
Illyricum. He left Rome and remained in Gaul until his invasion of
Italy. He continued north of the Alps each summer and he would leave
his army there in garrison each winter while he came south to conduct
the civil administration of Cisalpine Gaul and Illyricum and to keep
in contact with Rome.
Caesar became determined to conquer and make a province of the
whole of Gaul. After his defeat of the Belgic tribes in the north and
the submission of the maritime tribes on the Atlantic seaboard, he
believed that the task had all but been accomplished. Caesar decided
to make two short reconnaissance expeditions, one across the Rhine.
and the other across the Straits of Dover to Britain. In a longer and
more serious invasion of Britain he crossed the Thames and received
the submission of the supreme commander of the southeastern Britons,
Cassivellaunus.
Caesar had avoided recall to Rome at the end of the five years
of command voted to him by coming to a fresh agreement with Pompey and
Crassus at Luca. The optimates in control of the senate, now awake to
the immense increase in Caesar’s personal power, wealth, and prestige,
kept Pompey in Italy, allowing him to govern his Spanish provinces by
deputies. Pompey’s own attachment to Caesar was broken when Caesar’s
daughter Julia to whom Pompey had been happily married since 59 BC
died in 54 BC Crassus was killed by the Parthians at Carrhae in
Mesopotamia. In planning Caesar’s return to civil life in Rome he
could assume that as soon as he lost the immunity from prosecution
which his military command conferred, his political enemies would
endeavor to secure his exile by prosecuting him in the courts either
for bribery or for the use of force in politics. In Rome there was
support in the senate for a negotiated compromise when Curio put forth
the proposal by which Caesar would give up his military command and
stand in person at the consular election on condition that Pompey
abandon his military command at the same time. On January 7, 49 BC
Antony and one of his fellow tribunes were warned that their lives
would be in danger if they sustained their veto and the proclamation
of military law was passed. Caesar was told to leave his troops
behind and cross the Rubicon into Rome alone. Caesar knew that this
was a death sentence for him so he did not leave his troops but
marched into the city and caused a civil war. He defeated Pompey’s
troops in many battles and became the dictator of Rome.
From the time that he had first faced battle in Gaul and
discovered his own military genius, Caesar was evidently fascinated
and obsessed by military and imperial problems. He gave them an
absolute priority over the more delicate by no less fundamental task
of revising the Roman constitution. The need in the latter sphere was
a solution which would introduce such elements of authoritarianism as
were necessary to check corruption and administrative weakness.
Caesar’s first dictatorship was simply a commission to enable
him to hold elections in the absence of the consuls of the year who
were with Pompey, but after the news of Pharsalus, Caesar was created
dictator again; after Tapsus he was made dictator for ten years and in
the winter of 45 BC he was appointed perpetual dictator.
When Caesar was out of Italy after 49 BC real power lay in the
hands of his representatives. When he was dictator the most important
of these representatives was his “master of the horse”. This
representative was Mark Antony. Much resentment was felt by prominent
senators like Cicero on account of the great power and influence of
such against of Caesar. Caesar’s military dominance was established
beyond the possibility of successful challenge, the senate gave him a
profusion of personal honors which were out of keeping with Roman
tradition, reflecting as they did the extravagant distinctions
accorded earlier to the Hellenistic kings. The month of July was named
after Caesar and his statue was placed in the temple of Quirinus.
Caesar was considered to be a dictator for life. According to
the traditional Republican constitution this office was only to be
held for six months during a dire emergency. Caesar also obtained
honors to increase his prestige. He wore the robe, crown, and scepter
of a triumphant general and used the title imperator. He was also in
command of the armies. Caesar used his dictatorship and used it to
increase his power. With all of his powers he was pretty much the
king of Rome. Mark Antony was his major supporter and he helped
convince the others to allow Caesar to have these abilities, but it
led to some problems.
A group of conspirators had been formed against Caesar because
they felt that he had too much power and that if he became the king of
Rome he would become corrupt and use his powers to create a bad
society. The senate resented his actual position that was shown in
the sixty member conspiracy which Marcus Brutus had organized to kill
him. On the Ides of March , two days before he was due to leave Rome
on his great eastern expedition, he was stabbed to death at a meeting
of the senate in Pompey’s new theater. He fell dead at the foot of
Pompey’s statue. Pompey was avenged, as well as Bibulus and Cato.
After a provocative funeral oration by Mark Antony, Caesar’s body was
burned by the mob in the forum. When at the games in his honor the
following July a comet appeared and it was regarded as evidence of his
godhead and he was formally consecrated and “divus Julius,” or divine
Julius. Octavius, whose name became Caesar Octavianus after his
adoption by Caesar’s will, solved, by his creation of the Roman
principate, the constitutional problem that Caesar failed to solve.
Caesar had started as a consul and had formed the first
triumvirate with Crassus and Pompey. They had taken over the Roman
civilization and had controlled for a while. When Crassus was killed
and agreement was made. Pompey and Caesar were supposed to give up
their military and enter the city of Rome to find a real ruler.
Pompey was in on the deal and he was supposed to take over. Caesar
knew that if he entered the city of Rome without his troops he would
be killed by Pompey and so he crossed the Rubicon with his troops and
attacked Rome. He took over as a dictator for life and gained a lot
of power. He was able to run a strong military and even though he was
considered only a dictator he wrote laws that actually made him have
the same powers as a king. The conspirators saw the problem that had
arised and so they planned the murder of Caesar on the Ides of March.
Caesar was killed and there was another triumvirate formed. Caesar
was a strong military leader that had showed strength and courage to
take over the town and he was able to form a civilization that was
strong militarily and politically.
