Sisyphus and the Anger of Zeus - Portugal: The Endless Rise and Fall of a Prosperous Country

The Easy Way Up - Rebuilding the Country

When Afonso and his offspring managed to complete the reconquest of  the territory from the Muslims by forcing them to leave Faro at the Algarve in 1249, the countryside was left

in a disastrous condition. The devastated territory was resettled with Christian settlers, monastic and military orders who were granted huge areas of land.(Schäfer 1837, first book, pp237)Villages and cities were established at rivers, close to fertile areas and near to monasteries. When Afonso’s son Dini ascended the throne, he improved the situation in agriculture, and mining, naval and over land trade. He also supported the national language, all official documents had to be written in the vernacular and he furthermore established an institution of higher education in Portugal, the University of Coimbra.(Anderson2000,p33)    

Unfortunately, a plague devastated the country that was just in the emergence of flourishing:

Fernando I  forced landowners to cultivate all unused land in order to provide enough food. At the same time he established a merchant fleet and  introduced a maritime insurance company. When Fernando I died, his Castilian wife Leonor Teles had to act as a regent. The Portuguese  feared the unification of Spain and Portugal and Joao,  the illegitimate son of Pedro I, Fernando’s father, forced her to leave the country. Castile immediately invaded Portugal but with the support of the skilled and well equipped English soldiers, who had already been influenced by the military revolution, Joao was able to defeat the Spaniards. During his reign, the Social Revolution emerged and a new administration and jurisdiction was created, the support of artisans resulted into establishing guilds. Peace was sealed with Castile in 1411 and Portuguese independency could be secured for about 200 years. The alliance with England was confirmed in the Treaty of Windsor 1386, and was one of the first alliances made between two countries. (Anderson 2000,p.40; Library of Congress)

The Continuous Ascending - The Era of Monarchy

The early kings of Portugal, although assisted by councils, functionaries and the cortes , had absolutistic features. The cortes was only called in on the behalf of the king who also had to affirm its ideas. He ruled over the entire kingdom and possessed and regulated the affairs of the emerging towns. The south was controlled by monastic and military orders while the northern territory was divided into units. These units, called terras, were based on the system of feudalism, but unlike to feudalism in the common sense, the noblemen who regulated the units first had to be legalized by the king.(Library of Congress) The fragmentation, typical to feudalistic structures was missing. From the beginning on, there was only one king to rule over the entire territory. Since the general structure of Portugal was marked by a rigid control by the king, the clergy and nobles, no lower class member was really able to take part in government or economy and therefore a middle class was never really established.(Anderson 200, p31)

Almost at the Top- Overwhelming Prosperity and World Power

Due to the countries location, its proximity to islands in the Atlantic Ocean and to the coast of

Africa, Joao expanded its Naval force. As the leader of an independent kingdom, Joao had the desire to expand but saw no other change but to expand over sea, since there was no more space on the European continent. He was also looking for a sea route to India and hoped for the discoveries of new lands. At first the depot of spice trade, Ceuta in Morocco, was conquered what freed the Strait of Gibraltar from pirates. An attack on Muslims equalled a crusade and was rewarded by the church.(Library of Congress)

With the Strait of Gibraltar in their hands the Portuguese had the control over the important sea route between the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean. Additionally they were able to control the African market, since Ceuta was “the terminus of trans- Saharan trade”.(Anderson 2000, p.42) Not to forget that Granada still was occupied by Muslims, the conquest of Ceuta can be regarded as a warning or threat to the caliphate still residing in Spain. (pp.41)

     In further expeditions, islands like the Azores and the Madeira Islands were discovered and made to colonies. In 1487 Bartolomeu Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope and in 1499 Vasco da Gama discovered the sea route to India. A year later Brazil was colonized, remaining in the hands of Portugal for over 300 years .( B.Fausto 1999, pp.1) The time of the colonization brought fame and fortune to the Portuguese. The economy flourished and Portugal was to become the most powerful country in Europe . Portugal’s empire in Asia made its monarchy the richest in Europe and Lisbon therefore became the commercial capital of the world.(Library of Congress)

     Whereby most countries experienced war and dynastical difficulties in the fifteenth century, Portugal was not effected with internal problems. This was due to the fact that the Portuguese monarchy had been strengthened in the revolution of 1338-1385 and that the Reformation , what gave rise to civil wars and revolts in the rest of Europe, could be kept down by the powerful clergy.(Library of Congress) To maintain its power the church initiated  the Counter Revolution and a Court of Inquisition was established in Portugal in 1536 what “shielded Portugal from the currents of the Reformation”(Anderson 2000,p.83). Reformation movements led in other countries to an important change in social structures. The emergence of Protestantism supported the secularisation and the powerful upper classes lost their influence. The middle class developed schemes of autonomy and could take part in governmental decisions and moreover in the economy.  Successful merchants could increase their wealth and trade skills and knowledge were further developed. (Palmer, 9th edition, pp89)

In Portugal all these important new structures could not advance since the church, with the power to excommunicate, supported the old schemes and the upper classes successful prevented a change in social structure to maintain their position. The church had They extinguished tendencies of Protestantism  in Portugal with the help of the Inquisition. Another advantage one could say was the geographical location, the invasion of new ideas could be controlled since they could only enter the country from one side. Moreover was Portugal not surrounded with countries being influenced by the Reformation.(Library of Congress)

      Portugal’s hand to mouth economy, what did not regard the future and expensed the money regardless, avoided the construction of a stable economy. The country’s industry was weakened since manufactured goods were only imported and the expelling of the Jews in 1497, who where an important group of people to maintain trade, technical skills and knowledge, was even worsening the situation.(Library of Congress)      

The Tumble and the Aching Fall – The Decline and the Total Breakdown

Joao III was the last strong leader of the dynasty of  the House of Avis, his successor Sebastiao was obsessed with conquering further territory in Morocco. Unprepared and with badly equipped troops, he attacked the Muslims in 1578, a battle that is claimed today as “the most disastrous failing in Portuguese history”(Library of Congress, Dynastic Crisis). After the battle Sebastiao was never seen again. After the vanishing of Sebastiao, the question about succession was accompanied with insecurity and confusion. Henrique, who, as a cardinal could not marry did not solve the problem. After his death, the Spanish army invaded Portugal and annexed it to Spain. The nephew of Joao III, at the same time Philip II of Spain, was declared Filipe I of Portugal! (Anderson 2000,pp.94; Library of Congress, Dynastic Struggles) Although Portugal stayed mainly autonomous, the annexing to Spain was aching. The people feared nothing as much as belonging to Spain. The upper class did not mind the unification,  they had been imitating the Castilian Court ever since, but the commoners and peasants in the countryside resisted. They developed the belief that Sebastiao did not die but would return and free Portugal from their Spanish domination. This anxious belief  evolved into a cult called Sebastianism , equalling the thesis of Sisyphus, and  reflects ”the nostalgic longing for the unattainable, [and is a]  a continuing feature of the Portuguese life” (Library of Congress).

The New Try – Regaining Independency     

Philip III was aiming to unify Portugal with Spain even more, he appointed Spaniards to the Portuguese council and called the duke of Olivares to do the administration. He levied taxes on Portugal, abolished all classes and forced the Portuguese to fight on their side. Rebellions broke out and the nobility allied with the French who promised support. During the rebellion of 1637,  Joao, duke of Braganca fell into the royal palace and arrested Portugal´s Spanish governor. He was crowned as Joao IV in 1641 and restored the Portuguese monarchy while founding a new ruling dynasty, the House of Braganca.( Anderson 200, pp108)

After 60 years of  “Spanish captivity” the Portuguese had lost their territories in Asia to the Dutch and the English. Only Brazil could be saved from the Dutch, but the realm was ruined.

Joao took action and was able to restore and reorder Portugal, made peace with England and Holland and founded an alliance with France. (Library of Congress)

During the period of his successors Pedro and Afonso , peace with Spain was established and Portugal was eventually recognized as an independent kingdom. During the era of Pedro II, mercantilist policies were introduced by Luís de Menenses, count of Ericeira, also called the “Portuguese Colbert”. Those policies gave protection to industries against foreign competition. Menenses tried to increase Portugal’s economy, organized the textile industry. But the production of good were not sufficient and Portugal soon depended on the imports from England, its ally partner, who was paid with Brazilian gold.(Library of Congress)

A Wasted Try to Succeed - From Absolutism and Dictatorship Back to the Roots  

Joao V introduced French absolutism to Portugal and started to construct expensive architectural works (the royal palace at Mafra or the Aqueduct of Free Waters). “All in all, Joao V animated what has been called Portugal’s second renaissance” (Library of Congress).

The Marques of Pombal, former ambassador to Britain and Austria gained control over the kingdom while Jose I was king, and became the first dictator of the country. When an earthquake hit Lisbon on November 1st, 1755 .Pombal, influenced by Enlightenment, realized the backwardness of his country and decided to rebuild the city in the modern way, making Lisbon become Europe’s first planned city. He tried to reform the government, the economy and the social structure. He intended to limit the power of the upper classes, and broke diplomatic relations with the Holy See in 1760. He followed the mercantilist ideas of Colbert and prohibited the export of gold and silver, gave monopolies to royal companies in the hope to avoid having to import goods. In 1761 he abolished slavery and further established a system of public education, set up laboratories, museums and botanical gardens. Nobles and the clergy disliked him and also the commoners, having suddenly to deal with an absolute change in structures, opposed him.(Anderson 2000, pp.123)When the king died in 1777, his religious daughter Maria ascended the throne. She dismissed Pombal immediately, and managed to almost completely restore the old system. Maria reinforced the importance of religion and secured therefore that “Portugal was [not only] Roman Catholic in the religious sense but also socially and culturally”(Library of Congress, Religion]. In the French Revolution, again the monarchy was able to maintain their power and the social structure. It had the advantage of a religious population living remote from the centre of Europe.(Anderson 2000,pp125)

Linking facts – conclusion

Portugal had had the best capacities to become a powerful and strong European country. After successfully defending their territory against the Romans, the Moors and the Spanish, it is the first country to establish a stable territory and the first to have a monarchy. Other countries at that time are still thinking in feudal structures. Moreover Portugal introduces alliances to Europe and becomes a world power due to colonization. But all this prosperity is destroyed at some point. The key problem is, that the upper classes were able to maintain their power and to suppress the establishment of a middle class. Religion might therefore be the main reason. On the one hand it sealed the unity of the people since the earliest days but on the other hand it prevented the country from developing secular standards. The clergy had almost unlimited power and could menace with excommunication.

Eventually you might realize that the conditions of unity through religion led the country only at first to prosperity but that, at the end, the on religion based national feeling  prevented the state from developing a proper state construction.  

When will Sisyphus manage to reach the top?

List of References

Anderson, James M.(2000). The History of Portugal. Westport, Connecticut. London: Greenwood Press.

Schäfer, Heinrich (1837). Geschichte von Portugal, erster Band. Hamburg: Friedrich Perthes

Opello, W.C. & Rosow (Second Edition 2003). The Nation State and Global Order. A Historical Introduction to Contemporary Politics. London: Lynne Rienner Publishers

Fausto, Boris (1999). A Concise History of Brazil. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

 (Gymnasium Kreienbühl)

 (Library of Congress)

---