The Black Death

The next obvious effect was on that of the workforce and trades: there were suddenly not enough people to work both on the land to produce food, to work in the mills or to fulfill roles in skilled trades as carpentry, ironmongery and coopering. Peasants immediately recognised that a reduced workforce meant that their services were now in great demand, so much so that they were now in a far better position to negotiate the terms of their work and payment and they demanded fairer treatment and lighter burdens. Although not often given into easily, Landlords were pressed for higher wages and reduction, if not elimination of servile dues and restrictions. Trade guilds were forced to go against previous lines of employment through family connections and “spread their nets more broadly to bring in new apprentices”. Previously unskilled men now had the opportunity to work in new trades of which empowered them to demand higher wages dues to their new skills and remaining demand for their services.

 It can be readily seen again that the Black Death naturally bought forward a better quality of life for those who survived and the society simply took advantage of these new opportunities. “Conspicuous consumption” by the poor began to erase the distinctive differences between the social classes and ensured that the previous pattern of society and class in the 13th century would not continue. Although the decline of serfdorm may have begun prior to the plague, there is no doubt that it accelerated it greatly with the rise of a richer and more prosperous class of peasant, called yeoman.

The post-plague social changes were initially successful and medieval society again demonstrated the ability to succeed after disaster, although resistance to change from nobility forced the peasant classes to make further, forceful demands. A series of revolts and rebellions followed, lead by the commoners and peasants (The French Jaquerie of 1358 and The English Peasants Revolt in 1381, most famously) as they fought for their rights under the new social structure. The revolts did little to make further changes as most has already taken place, they predominantly only further disrupted social relations and created further unrest. The effects of the Black Death are probably most dramatic and easily identifiable on Europe’s social structure and it is here that medieval society demonstrated the greatest lack of ability to cope with the immediate aftermath. Although  it should also be considered that 14th century was a time of great unrest as it stood. In 1317, Europe experienced a great famine, the Hundred Years War was suspended through the Black Death but began again soon after and Europe experienced troubles with both the Turks and the Jews, the latter of which were frequently accused of involvement with the spreading of the Black Death.  When considering these factors, it is perhaps understandable that a quick and trouble-free recovery after the Black Death would be unlikely, especially considering the radical changes it bought on itself.

Medieval economic recovery relates closely to social recovery as the changes in the number of those able to work impacted greatly on Europe’s already critical economy. Of course, the initial economic repercussion was shock; routines of work and service were completely disrupted or put on hold altogether. Construction projects were stopped, mills were abandoned and broken machinery could not be repaired as the economy and productivity grinded to a temporary halt. An immediate general inflation in prices of clothing and food was a result of there existing few people to actually produce them, but this quickly settled as people returned to previous work for higher wages or trained in new trades. The value of agricultural land had also diminished and rents collapsed, stark in contrast to the soaring wages for agricultural workers. Along with the drop in price of goods due to oversupply, the ordinary man benefited greatly where business and landowners suffered. The government responded by introducing new taxes and sumptuary laws across Europe of which regulated the common mans use of the newly readily available goods. Fashion was regulated with sleeve size and trains on dresses reduced; quantities and types of food served at weddings and other events was also limited by the laws.

Changes in the economy also affected industry and some towns effectively ‘died’. Town centers such as Champagne and Bruges lost significance and importance as both population and industry moved into the country in hope to escape the plague.

Industrial advancements was only put on hold throughout the plague and society again demonstrated the ability to reform and reestablish business and industry by immediately creating new business centers. Antwerp and Nuremberg became established financial and trade centers, in which free trade was encouraged by foreign merchants with good quality manufacture. 

Technology itself also leapt forward as a response to the challenge of higher and scarcer labour, which gave way to new opportunity. The inventive thinking of the post-plague society produced the beginnings of printing and also great developments in maritime transport and use. As far as creativity and development in industry is concerned, the plague provided a start of fresh thinking of which society embraced by looking forward and being creative.

Like the Hundred Years War, Politics froze throughout the plague and politics remained fairly undisturbed and left no devastating effects. National Parliaments across Europe were adjourned but recovered soon after. The effect on local politics was much greater and in some cases, entire city councils were reformed as the plague had ravished their numbers. Governments had to act in new ways and create new acts quickly to respond to and attempt to control the new social and economic structure in order to maintain some order and sensible economic situation. Governments attempted to curb the swell in wages and relinquish sinking rents. They aimed to hold prices and wages at the previous levels, despite the economic problems in an attempt to reestablish normality and control. Workers were encouraged to simply accept whatever employment was offered to them. Serfs responded by exercising their new found ability to making demands by moving to areas where wages were higher or land rental terms were less, and so the governments new controls had little productive effect.

The combination of the governments trying to enforce control and the serfs new strength, voice and being in a better position to make demands, led to the peasant revolts later on. Governments generally were perhaps not as successful as they had hoped in enforcing rule and therefore were perhaps less able to cope or know what to do next in the aftermath of the plague.

The position on the church experienced some change through the plague although attitudes towards religion and God himself shifted from great faith and belief to lack of hope and faith, Society turned to God in prayer and hope at the beginning of the plague in the hope of protecting themselves and their loved ones. Fear of unforeseen death promoted religious consciousness although this soon became pessimistic in the wake of the vast mortality rates – how could God let this happen? Initially, some thought of it as vengeance from God upon a sinful world. Boccoccio wrote the following in ‘Decameron’: -

                “…whether disseminated by the influence of celestial bodies, or sent upon us by God in His just wrath by way of retribution for our inquisities…”

It was also recognized that like the Malthusian theory, the plague came as a needed reaction to overpopulation and that it was ‘divine intervention’ rather than a natural reaction to help reduce the misery and strife of the overpopulated middle ages.

These were only initial ideas and contrary to what we may think of the middle ages, many churchmen and public officials recognized that the plague was a disease spread by infection, not vengeance from God.

Changes did in fact take place within the church, predominantly because they had to. Unholy people or ‘laymen’ were given permission to hear the last rites of the dying due to shortage of clergy available to hear them themselves; there own numbers had also diminished through loss to the plague. In some cases, women were allowed to hear the last rites, which of course would otherwise have been unheard of. The acceptance that the strict pre-requisites for entrance into the clergy could not be continued after the plague was a result of the diminished population and lack of available religious men. Like the skilled trades groups, the church also had to widen their nets to those not normally perhaps considered suitable to work within the church. Priests were ordained at twenty rather than twenty five and monastic vows could be administered at fifteen rather then twenty. The church was now heavily staffed by inexperienced, younger people which some felt was not a good direction for the church to be taking. The privitisation of medieval religions began as middle class families built and staffed their own private chapels and chapters across Europe and segregated families and forms of worship in the church.

The church was certainly deeply affected by the plague and the ruptures in holy laws continued well into the aftermath. The loss of so many clergy and chapters, the privitisation and segregation of worship and general lack of faith were all by-products of the devastation and demonstrate similar levels of unrest as was on social Europe after the plague.

Medically, society could do little to cope with the aftermath of the plague, as there simply wasn’t the knowledge of disease or of medicine to even effectively attempt the prevention of future outbreaks. Disease was rife as it was ad there had been eleven large-scale occasions of plague, small pox, measles and typhus fever, all before 1500. The Black Death of 1348 – 49 was itself only one of the many outbreaks of the plague; not only were there many outbreaks before but it re-occurred for almost every generation in smaller quantities up until the fifteenth century. These reoccurrences meant that for almost a century Europe could not properly recover from unbalance and general havoc created in 1348, as with each outbreak the recovery process socially and economically especially, took a step back.

Medical observers did note that the plague affected the poor more greatly as through poor diet and periods of famine, they were more susceptible to the ravages of diseases; they were deemed already almost dead. The relationship between vulnerability to disease and poor diet became more apparent, particularly with the improved health with a better diet and quality of life after the plague.

Although understanding and knowledge in health was improved, the cause and in particular, the treatment remained a mystery for some time after. Boccacio noted that the best prevention in contracting plague was to simply get away: “…against plagues, no medicine was better than simple flight…”. The Pope also attempted to seek the cause and obtained opinions of the medical faculty in Paris, They decided that disaster was caused by a particularly unfortunate “…conjunction of Saturn, Jupiter and Mars, in the sign of Aquarius in 1345”  and that this in turn caused the earth to produce poison vapors. This lack of understanding of cause meant that society could not prepare themselves for another out-break other than to continue with their improves eating habits. This lack of knowledge in medicine hampered societies recovery in the aftermath whereas in other areas, society was able to move forward.

The areas of great movement  indicate that medieval society was in need of immense change  in way of life and if were not for the influence and altering affects of the Black death, it is in little doubt that the problems from overpopulation especially and the restraints of class divide would have continued, greatened and worsened life for all of Europe. The Black Death, as devastating it was, gave society the chance to refresh and renew itself and provide the opportunity for reflection, restructure and advancement. Medieval society coped very successfully in the aftermath by recognizing the renewed and rebalanced opportunities now open to them. They broke the social deadlock tremendous poverty and suffering for the serfs and poor by taking advantage of new demands for labour, the re-trained and re-educated themselves to create personal advancement, new business and finance centers flourished and government and clergy positions and power were reconsidered. The reduced population allowed for quality of life to advance for all as the growth and production levels of food were now able to match if not exceed that of the remaining population. The post-plague people of medieval Europe were stronger, healthier people with perhaps a greater ability to consider their lives and society and how this could be improved.

It should be considered and remembered that although society did demonstrate great capability in coping in the aftermath of the plague, they were only able to make the advancements that they did due to the effects of plague. Without some great disruption, it is very unlikely that society would have changed at all and that the social and economic state of Europe would have only worsened. The plague changed everything that needed to change to allow the advancement for society – it vastly reduced the population. All necessary changes could then proceed to create a better life for all. Medieval society did cope effectively in most areas in the aftermath of the plague but only because the plague itself created a better demographic situation for the whole of medieval Europe to exist in.

Bibliography

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Herlihy D, ed. Cohn, S. K.,  The Black Death and the Transformation of the West, Harvard University Press, Massachusetts, 1999

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Cohn Jr, S., K., “The Black Death; End of a Paradigm” The American Historical Review, p. 46, June 2002

“Medieval Health”, , 03/01/2004

Skip Knox, Dr E. L “Population Loss – The Black Death”,  , 17/08/1995

“The Black Death”, , 04/01/2004

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