Dependent states, therefore, should attempt to pursue policies of self-reliance. Contrary to the neo-classical models endorsed by the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank, greater integration into the global economy is not necessarily a good choice for poor countries. The failures of these policies are clear, and the failures suggest that autarky is not a good choice. Rather a policy of self-reliance should be interpreted as endorsing a policy of controlled interactions with the world economy: poor countries should only endorse interactions on terms that promise to improve the social and economic welfare of the larger citizenry.
3.THE MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS
This vision took the shape of eight Millennium Development Goals, which are providing countries around the world a framework for development, and time-bound targets by which
progress can be measured.
"The Millennium Development Goals were adopted five years ago by all the world's Governments as a blueprint for building a better world in the 21st century." Kofi Annan
The MDGs represent a global partnership that has grown from the commitments and targets established at the world summits of the 1990s. Responding to the world's main development challenges and to the calls of civil society, the MDGs promote poverty reduction, education, maternal health, gender equality, and aim at combating child mortality, AIDS and other diseases. "The Millennium Assembly offers a timely opportunity for the world's leaders to look beyond their pressing daily concerns and consider what kind of United Nations they can envision and will support in the new century."
Six billion human beings. Rapid globalization. Intractable conflicts. Genocide and ethnic cleansing. Promoting development. Combating poverty and AIDS. Controlling climate change. As humanity reflects on the challenges we face at this millennial milestone, it is a chance also to reflect on the only global organization to which we can turn: the United Nations..
3.1 THE EIGHT MILLENNIUM TARGETS
Goal 1: Eradicate Extreme Hunger and Poverty
Target 1. Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people whose income is less than $1 a day
Target 2. Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people who suffer from hunger
Goal 2: Achieve Universal Primary Education.
Target 3. Ensure that, by 2015, children everywhere, boys and girls alike, will be able to complete a full course of primary schooling
Goal 3: Promote Gender Equality and Empower Women
Target 4. Eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education, preferably by 2005, and in all levels of education no later than 2015
Goal 4.
Target 5: Reduce by two thirds the mortality rate among children under five
- Under-Five Mortality Rate (UNICEF)
- . Infant Mortality Rate (UNICEF)
- . Proportion of 1 year-old Children Immunised Against Measles (UNICEF)
Goal 5: Improve Maternal Health
Target 6: Reduce by three quarters the maternal mortality ratio
- Maternal Mortality Ratio (WHO)
- .Proportion of Births Attended by Skilled Health Personnel (UNICEF)
Goal 6.
Target 7: Halt and begin to reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS
HIV Prevalence Among 15-24 year-old Pregnant Women (UNAIDS)
Condom use rate of the contraceptive prevalence rate and Population aged 15-24 years with comprehensive correct knowledge of HIV/AIDS(UNAIDS, UNICEF, UN Population Division, WHO)20. Ratio of school attendance of orphans to school attendance of non-orphans aged 10-14 years.
Target 8: Halt and begin to reverse the incidence of malaria and other major diseases
- .Prevalence and Death Rates Associated with Malaria
- Proportion of Population in Malaria Risk Areas Using
- Effective Malaria Prevention and Treatment Measures (
- Prevalence and Death Rates Associated with Tuberculosis
- Proportion of Tuberculosis Cases Detected and Cured
Goal 7: Ensure Environmental Sustainability
Target 9. Integrate the principles of sustainable development into country policies and programs and reverse the loss of environmental resources
Target 10. Halve, by 2015, the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation
Target 11. Have achieved by 2020 a significant improvement in the lives of at least 100 million slum dwellers
Goal 8: Develop a Global Partnership for Development.
Target 12. Develop further an open, rule-based, predictable, nondiscriminatory trading and financial system (includes a commitment to good governance, development, and poverty reduction?both nationally and internationally)
Target 13. Address the special needs of the Least Developed Countries (includes tariff- and quota-free access for Least Developed Countries? exports, enhanced program of debt relief for heavily indebted poor countries [HIPCs] and cancellation of official bilateral debt, and more generous official development assistance for countries committed to poverty reduction)
Target 14. Address the special needs of landlocked developing countries and small island developing states (through the Program of Action for the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States and 22nd General Assembly provisions)
Target 15. Deal comprehensively with the debt problems of developing countries through national and international measures in order to make debt sustainable in the long term.
Some of the indicators listed below are monitored separately for the least developed countries, Africa, landlocked developing countries, and small island developing states
Target 16. In cooperation with developing countries, develop and implement strategies for decent and productive work for youth
Target 17. In cooperation with pharmaceutical companies, provide access to affordable essential drugs in developing countries
Target 18. In cooperation with the private sector, make available the benefits of new technologies, especially information and communications technologies
4.1 INDIA
Poverty in India
Over the last decade, India grew rapidly and the percentage of poor people declined.
The average annual growth rate between 1990 and 2003 was 5.9% , according to .
While overall poverty has declined, the extent of poverty reduction is debated.
Estimates in the reduction of poverty differ between the National Sample Survey Organization's rounds of 1993-1994 and 1999-2000, depending on the model used to adjust for comparability. These estimates range between 4.2 and 10.3 percentage points for rural areas and between 5.8 and 8.8 percentage points for urban areas.
A new NSSO round is being processed and will be available soon. This new round will help determine which of the models is more accurate, and is expected to improve the estimates from the 55th round (the round conducted in 1999-2000).
Disparity in economic and social development across the regions and among different segments of the society is widening. For example, between 1994-95 and 2001-02, Bihar's growth rate averaged 3.8% or less than two-thirds the national growth rate of 6.1% per year.
The World Bank has mainly provided state governments with technical assistance for monitoring poverty and evaluating poverty programs. The Bank also plans to provide technical assistance to the federal government to resolve the debate over poverty estimates and strengthen its statistical systems.
4.2Poverty Monitoring and Statistical Strengthening
The aims to support comprehensive reforms in selected reforming states. In addition, in view of the widening gulf in poverty and social indicators between reforming and non-reforming states, the Bank will also attempt to engage with the poorest states, especially those with large numbers of poor. A key principle of the engagement consists of a focus on outcomes: the Bank seeks to support or develop a stronger focus on results, emphasizing monitoring and evaluation within the programs of Government of India (GoI) and the states.
The Bank has been providing assistance to states for strengthening their poverty monitoring and statistical systems to better allow them to monitor development progress in general, and poverty reduction in particular. The first phase of such efforts, supported through the Poverty Monitoring and Analytic Support for India task (recently closed in June 2004), provided technical assistance and analytical work at two levels – to reforming states, and to the central government.
This is the second phase including the following four main components: (i) technical assistance on poverty monitoring and statistical strengthening to state governments; (ii) assistance to GoI Ministry of Statistics on implementation of recommendations of the NSC; (iii) building capacity and demand for evaluations; and (iv) promoting learning across states through wider dissemination and cross-state learning workshops. As in the past, the task consists of a mix of technical assistance and analytical work. Details are provided below.
5.SUDAN
Sudan is the largest country in Africa, with an estimated population of 36.2 million in 2005. The population growth rate is 2.6 percent, which is slightly above that of Sub-Saharan Africa at 2.1 percent. Per capita income was $340 in 2001 and stands at $650.
According to the 2001 UNDP Human Development Report (HDR) which uses data from 1999, Sudan is ranked 138th out of the 162 countries on its Human Development Index (HDI). This puts it within the bracket of low human development countries though near to the top of that grouping. Sudan is the second lowest ranked Arab country on HDI, just above Mauritania and below Djibouti. Amongst African countries it ranked 25th out of 49 countries. The HDR makes an adjustment for gender sensitive data and on this Gender related Development Index (GDI) Sudan ranks 129th out of the 146 countries based on data available. According to available data Sudan ranked 58th out of 90 countries in the new index of Human Poverty in Developing Countries.
5.1Face of poverty
The SMS and MICS data show that within the national context, there is a range of regional, sub-regional and crosscutting differentials in poverty among people. The Southern States and the States of Blue Nile, South Kordofan and South and West Darfur are the worst off according to an array of indicators. Below state level there are important disparities such as the urban-rural divide of Red Sea State. The poorest and most vulnerable groups of the population are the poor rural communities, war-affected and displaced populations including the mobile pastoralists, who cut across geographic boundaries and among those the children and the women in particular.
Women are more acutely affected by poverty than men in Sudan. There are 43.4 percent literate women against 68 percent literate men; women have less than one third of men’s income; one in five women is unemployed as opposed to one in eight men. In addition, Sudan is marred by one of the highest maternal mortality rates in the World of 509 maternal deaths per 100,000 births; and 89 percent of women undergo FGM. The 1993 census showed that 22.3 percent of all households in northern states were female headed. This percentage is even higher for the south. A major survey by Save the Children Denmark amongst the displaced in Khartoum in 1998-99 showed that 34 percent of households were female headed. Some of these are formed after girls and young women become pregnant, are abandoned by men and confronted with disapproval and censure by their elders. It is likely that as a result of the heavy displacement and the conflicts, the proportion of southern households headed by females is at least of this order. With pronounced double burdens of productive and reproductive responsibility falling on the women, these households are amongst the poorest in Sudan.(refer to appendix two)
Poverty has to be understood as a multi-dimensional phenomenon. Its analysis should take into account its complexity, dynamics and interrelationships of the historical, socio-cultural, socio-economic and geo-political dimensions. The rights-based approach, which has its foundation in the Charter of the United Nations (1945) and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) and the Convention on the Rights of the Child, provides a coherent framework for such analysis. The Universal Declaration highlights the universality of rights, centred on the equality of all people and recognises the realisation of human rights as a collective goal of humanity. These rights include: freedom from discrimination, freedom from want, for a decent standard of living, freedom to develop and realise one’s human potential, freedom from fear for personal security, freedom from injustice, freedom of participation, speech and association and freedom for decent work, without exploitation. From this angle, poverty is a condition characterised by serious deprivation of basic rights and needs in terms of food, nutrition, water, health, shelter, education, and a lack of opportunities to change the situation.(the tables in appendix one states the difference between Sudan and India how the millennium targets are rising and falling.)
From an economic point of view, poverty is the chronic shortage of resources to meet basic needs. From a social point of view, poverty is the lack of access to good health, good education, safe water and sanitation and nutrition. From an institutional point of view, poverty is the lack of institutions safeguarding the respect and promotion of human rights, obligations and commitments. Sudan’s high fertility rate itself exacerbates the poverty problem due to demands that the rapidly growing population places on a fragile ecological base.
From a socio-economic perspective, the manifestations of poverty in Sudan are clear:
-
High infant and maternal morbidity and mortality rates
- High rates of malaria, diarrhoea and acute respiratory diseases
- High rate of malnutrition
- High rate of illiteracy and low level of education
- High unemployment rate
- Decreasing immunisation coverage and frequent outbreaks of epidemics
- Large percentage of chronically resource poor households
- 4 million IDPs and 300,000 refugees
- Gender inequalities
-
Poor respect for basic human rights
The poor are caught in a web of interrelationships between the various determinants of poverty. Malnutrition and poor drinking water exacerbate infant mortality and a low level of education reduces the chances of sufficiently paid employment. This diminishes the opportunities for enhancing family income, reduces access to fee-based health services and, forces families to use contaminated water, which exposes them to water-related diseases. Inherent to their condition of deprivation are fundamental issues such as inequity in the access to resources and to basic social services and lack of opportunities to develop skills, articulate concerns and participate in decision-making about resources and services for moving out of poverty. The underlying causes of poverty are multi-faceted and interrelated. They can be grouped as social, economic/environmental, democratic governance and conflict.
6 CONCLUSION
Most children are being denied their rights to education. Although enrolment has increased in recent years, three-quarters of children still have no access to education. And the children who do go to school often face a poor learning environment. This has serious long-term implications since South Sudan could now be producing generation of illiterate youth. Also of particular concern in education is the marginalization of girls and young women. This too has long-term implications since it reduces women’s opportunities for participation at all levels of government – despite official proclamations of aiming for 25% representation. The people of South Sudan face a considerable challenge in empowering their women. Health standards too are very low: one child in four dies before the age of five, and the lifetime risk of woman dying in pregnancy or childbirth is one in nine. This is an outcome not just of poverty and insecurity but also of inadequate health services: there is only one doctor for every 100,000 people, primary health facilities lack drugs and equipment and there is virtually no obstetric emergency care. These problems are compounded by the fact that less than one-third of the population have access to safe water and prevailing poor hygiene and sanitation practices.
6.1RECOMMENDATION
INDIA
In the financial system, India needs to speed up judicial resolution of cases and debt recovery and improve the bankruptcy and liquidation procedures. Accounting and auditing and financial system regulation and supervision, though much improved since the 1980s, need to move much closer to the steadily improving best international practices, especially as the financial system becomes more privatized and links increase with the international economy (Chapter 7). The RBI also needs to deal more rapidly with weak banks and prevent their non-performing assets from increasing
Economic take-off in India has created the potential for accelerated poverty reduction. India must now show the same level of dynamism and innovation in tackling basic health and education inequalities as it has displayed in global technology markets to rapidly get on track for achieving the Millennium Development Goals targets.
If India closed the gender gap in mortality between girls and boys ages 1-5, that would save an estimated 130,000 lives. Reducing gender inequality would have a catalytic effect on reducing gaps in primary education between girls and boys. That effect, the Report notes, could be especially pronounced in South Asia, where gender inequality is most deeply entrenched. Eliminating gender inequality could reduce the underweight rate among children less than three years old by 13 percentage points in South Asia, equal to 13.4 million fewer malnourished children.nd wider human development goals.
Between 2002 and 2003, rice grown in the United States at a cost of $ 415 a tonne was exported at $ 275 a tonne. Suffering from this ‘perverse taxation’, rival rice exporters such as Thailand and Vietnam have to adjust to this unfair competition.
- Policy framework – Finalizing and approving the Secretariat’s policy framework to enable it to take the lead role in streamlining the sector in terms of quality control and coordination.
- Information sharing – Capacity building and networking with regional and international institutions forinformation sharing and technical expertise in program development.
- Transition activities – Sustained budgetary support for capacity building to address staffing andoperational needs during planned transition activities.
- Community ownership – Closer collaboration with agencies in the water and sanitation sector to ensurethat programmes are driven by needs and foster community ownership.
- Data collection – Making field personnel take responsibility for basic data collection so as to improvemonitoring and evaluation.
- Decontamination – Introducing chlorine to decontaminate water in areas where drilling is not possibledue unfavourable geological conditions.
- Women’s participation – Increasing women’s participation in the planning and management ofcommunity water sources.
- Education – Encouraging collaboration between the education and health Secretariats in hygiene andsanitation education.
6.2SUDAN
The poor are caught in a web of interrelationships between the various determinants of poverty. Malnutrition and poor drinking water exacerbate infant mortality and a low level of education reduces the chances of sufficiently paid employment. This diminishes the opportunities for enhancing family income, reduces access to fee-based health services and, forces families to use contaminated water, which exposes them to water-related diseases. Inherent to their condition of deprivation are fundamental issues such as inequity in the access to resources and to basic social services and lack of opportunities to develop skills, articulate concerns and participate in decision-making about resources and services for moving out of poverty. The underlying causes of poverty are multi-faceted and interrelated. They can be grouped as social, economic/environmental, democratic governance and conflict.
- To address the twin issues of land tenure and the pastoralist-nomad conflict.
- To ensure the timely shift from relief to recovery.
- To increase focus on service delivery; to increase analysis of long-term displacedpopulations. Particular reference will be made to enhanced livelihood generation forthis group.To strengthen the capacity of the local administrations.
- To work with local NGOs to provide an environment conducive to returns.
- To consolidate all existing data, and coordinate future data-gathering exercises,particularly on returns.
- To foster improved relations between UNMIS and the local communities.
- To improve the integration and programming of the regional strategy with particular
- reference to the incidence of HIV/AIDS in the region.
- Policy framework – Finalizing and approving the Secretariat’s policy framework to enable it to take thelead role in streamlining the sector in terms of quality control and coordination.
- Information sharing – Capacity building and networking with regional and international institutions forinformation sharing and technical expertise in program development.
- Transition activities – Sustained budgetary support for capacity building to address staffing andoperational needs during planned transition activities.
- Community ownership – Closer collaboration with agencies in the water and sanitation sector to ensurethat programmes are driven by needs and foster community ownership.
- Data collection – Making field personnel take responsibility for basic data collection so as to improvemonitoring and evaluation.
- Decontamination – Introducing chlorine to decontaminate water in areas where drilling is not possibledue unfavourable geological conditions.
- Women’s participation – Increasing women’s participation in the planning and management ofcommunity water sources.
- Education – Encouraging collaboration between the education and health Secretariats in hygiene andsanitation education
6.3APENDIX 1
THIS TABLE SHOWS THAT IMPROVEMENTS HAVE BEING MADE IN INDIA AND THEY ARE ACHIEVING THE MILLENIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS,COMPARED TO SUDAN.
SUDAN COUNTRY PROFILE
6.4 APENDIX TWO
This is a development diagram that shows the poverty and social income group in
Sudan.
7. REFERENCE:
-
Anh, Dang Nguyen. 1985. The production and living of some immigration, Sociology, No 4.
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Liberalisation, Economic Performance and Social Policy, Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
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BIBLOGRAPHY
8. BOOKS
- P.M. Holt The Mahdist State in the Sudan, 1881-1898: A Study of Its Origins, Development, and Overthrow, 2nd ed. (1970)
- Joseph Oduho and William Deng
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Miniatlas of Millennium Development Goals: Building a Better World (MiniAtlas (world bank)) (Paperback) by Publisher: World Bank Publications (September 29, 2005)
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Scale Development: Theory and Applications (Paperback, 2003) Author:
- Handbook of Poverty in India
-
Book profile : Handbook of Poverty in India , , ,
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Format: Paperback
JOURNAL
- The Rise and Fall of Development Theory.vol 1
-
, by vol 20.
ENCYCLOPAEDIA
- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Nuttall_Encyclopaedia
WEBSITES
- www.millenniumcampaign.org/goals_poverty -
-
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- www.indiaclub.com
DICTIONARY
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law,By: RUSH,Edition: 06
- Oxford dictionary of law 2003
CR-ROM
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- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crime and media
LITERATURE REVIEW