The first problem with the chosen method of research is that the number of questionnaires issued is comparatively low if you consider the amount of football fans in England and Wales. The paper details that a 1997 study by Bradford and Reeve outlined that there were over 18 million football fans in England and Wales. A positivistic approach is usually used when selecting large samples (Collis and Hussey, 2003, p55).
So immediately, you can see that the chosen sample of only 164 is not a very large representation; in fact it covers less than 0.001% of football fans in the UK. When you take out the 92 issued to football clubs, then this figure looks even poorer. Finally, when you consider the amount of returned questionnaires from supporters (28) then it appears to be a paper lacking much credence, especially when you take into account that this kind of research provides a generalisation from the sample.
Questionnaires can be used in both positivistic and phenomenological methodologies. The approach taken by Green appears to have been that of closed questions, which suggests the positivistic approach. However, a feature of this methodology is selecting a large sample, which is something Green has not done.
Collis and Hussey (2003, p155) believe that in a positivistic study, a good sample is one in which the results obtained can be taken as true for the whole population. It should also be ‘large enough to satisfy the needs of the investigation being undertaken’. The sample size in this research did not meet the above criteria.
When considering the research aimed solely at the football clubs, the researcher targeted all the clubs in the English league and as such, could not really target them in a better or more efficient way. However, only issuing 72 questionnaires to football fans and only doing this in 2 locations is not really targeting a large enough cross section of football fans.
For a subject area with as wide an audience as football, it would have been far better to select a larger sample. This is something that would have been fairly easy to achieve. Although 18 million football fans may not be totally active fans, you can assume that perhaps at least half of this number actively participates in watching the game at some level.
There are many ways in which the sample size could have been increased, and it wouldn’t have required the researchers to change the methodology used. It just seems that the sample is not large enough to give conclusive proof of its findings.
Another failing of this research is that during the planning phase of the research, the researcher spent time interviewing representatives from both football clubs and the media. These interviews were with the intention of creating the context for the questionnaires.
The scope of people interviewed was pretty wide, covering journalists, broadcasters, freelance writers, football club officials, museum and archive curators, commercial service providers (websites and phone lines), academics, football administrators, supporter association officials and individual fans.
There is nothing particularly wrong with carrying out this phenomenographic research, but whilst its OK to combine research methods, this particular research does not seem to have embraced the resources at its disposal. Time obviously had to be dedicated by the researcher to interviewing the people in collating the questions.
The people interviewed also gave up their time to do this, and it would have been a better method of collecting data had direct interviews taken place on the subject itself. In reality, little was gained by holding these interviews – after all, the questions should write themselves for this subject matter. Wouldn’t it have been better to spend the interviewing time on data gathering instead of the creation of questions?
However, I also feel as though the researchers missed a bigger opportunity, this being the distribution of the supporters questionnaire. Perhaps it would have been more logical to try and work with the clubs who the original questionnaire went out to, as they have an immediate audience in the supporters that buy their merchandise.
For example, it could have been requested that a questionnaire was put in the programme on behalf of the researcher. OK, not every club would have been receptive to this idea, but it would have been worth discussing this with the clubs. This would have vastly increased the size of the target audience. The only potential stumbling block with this approach would be the costs involved.
The researchers could have targeted online users via mail shot or via fans forum websites. Perhaps even arranged for a survey to be put on the official club websites. It would have been better for the researcher to target a greater number over a specific period. This particular method would have had minimal cost impact.
Vogt (1993, p196) states that research design is the ‘science (and art) of planning procedures for conducting studies so as to get the most valid findings’. In the planning of this research, I feel Green did not obtain the most ‘valid findings’, and did not make the most of the opportunities he had.
In fairness to the researcher, I do feel that the answers obtained would still have been pretty consistent had the research covered a greater sample, as the responses and statistics are what you would expect to see. The paper itself is both well structured and thought out, and gives the reader the information necessary to understand what the study is about.
The abstract is clearly written; the introduction sets out the purpose of the research and the methodology section details how the research was carried out. The statistics provided are shown in tabular form, which is deemed the best graphical representation when reporting on small data sets (Tufte, 1983, p56). Overall it is a good paper but there are a number of ways it could have been improved.
- Paper Two - ‘Emerging trends in the use of the Internet – lessons from the football sector’
The second paper I reviewed was compiled by Beech, Chadwick and Tapp (2000) and used a phenomenological approach for its research methodology. This paper, which can be seen in appendix two, focussed on a similar subject matter to Green’s although concentrated primarily on the Internet, and the information available to football fans. The intention of this paper was to review the role that the Internet has in the football sector, for both the provision of information, and marketing.
The researchers decided on a qualitative study, which focused on experiences and observations. This was achieved by interviewing the specific people responsible for each clubs official Internet site, alongside an empirical study of football websites in general. Interviews are one of the main methods of data collection in qualitative research, although can be used in both positivistic and phenomenological approaches (Collis and Hussey, p167).
The raw data obtained in this kind of study will be exactly what has been observed, or what people have said in interviews or recorded conversations. Interviews are deemed as informal; a view endorsed by Marshall and Rossman (1999) who believe interviews are ‘much more like a conversation rather than a formal event’.
Due to cost constraints, the interviews were carried out via telephone as opposed to face to face. Costs are a major factor when determining how to carry out your research, and Jankowicz (1991) estimates you need at least one day to plan an interview, plus the added time of travelling etc. Add this to the fact that the response rates can be as high as 90 per cent for telephone interviews (Collis and Hussey, 2003, p176), you can see why this method was selected.
The choice of methodology appears to have been the correct one, as the information collected was non-numerical. In this study, there was only one research question, and the phenomenological approach is the best method for situations such as this, a view presented by Black (1993).
The researchers comment on the fact they chose not to use postal questionnaires, due to difficulties previously encountered with this method in the football sector. This contrasts with the method used in paper one, and centres around the perceived poor return rates of the questionnaires.
The research was split into two areas. Qualitative interviews were carried out following the compilation of a checklist. The use of this was two-fold. Firstly, as stated by Gummerson (1991), it enables the interviewer to develop levels of understanding of the subject to be discussed.
Secondly, it allowed the researchers to semi-structure the interviews. This is a necessity when one aim of the interview is to develop an understanding of the respondent’s world (Easterby-Smith et al, 1991), as was the case in this study.
Interestingly, some of the views expressed from the findings in the paper are in contrast to those seen in paper one. For example, Tapp et al (1999) believe that football clubs in England and Scotland have well-developed websites, whereas the previous paper stated that clubs had not yet embraced the World Wide Web. This shows the different perceptions that can be achieved through different research methods, and the differing choice of target audience.
A criticism of the approach taken for this research is that their sample was based on the entire Premier League, coupled with a smaller sample of lower league sides. It is obvious that the results will be swayed by the research in to the sides in the premier league, given the fact they have a greater wealth of resources, both financially and physically. For example, you can safely assume that Manchester United’s online presence will be significantly greater than that of say Rochdale.
However, the researchers have not made a sweeping generalisation from their findings and have tried to make sense of the data and draw theories from it, and do quantify their findings in the conclusions at the end of the paper. This is unusual in phenomenological studies where generalisation is often made from the conclusions about one thing based on information about another (Vogt, 1993, p99). The researchers have taken into account the different types of clubs researched before presenting overall findings.
Moving on to the second method of data collection, the researchers carried out an audit of football websites over a four-month period. Following this course of research over a specific period of time to obtain results is known as a longitudinal study, which is usually associated with a positivist methodology (Collis and Hussey 2003, p64). However, it can also be argued that this method of study can be based primarily on a qualitative approach, of which is referred to as ‘concatenated exploration’ by Stebbins (1992), where early studies in the process are mainly exploratory.
This method allows you to refine your variables over the duration of the study should it be deemed necessary or beneficial (Collis and Hussey 2003, p114). Adams and Schvaneveldt (1991) argue that taking this approach offers the researcher the opportunity to exercise some control over the variables studied. This was evident during the research period when the researchers adapted their study method after encountering problems.
For example, during the pilot study, straightforward closed questions were presented to the ‘observers’ but were found impossible to answer, due to there being occasions when answers needed quantifying. This led to the development of a number of open-ended questions. Given the nature of the study topic (websites) and their ever changing data, this was a necessity and allowed the researchers to collate improved results during the timed research.
Overall this is a well-structured paper that cites numerous literature reviews in support of the subject matter. The abstract gives a good outline of the study but also informs the reader of the methodology used. An in depth introduction, followed by clear information on the study, methodology and methods used, and the paper forms good conclusions at the end. The sections are broken down even further with details of the individual study methods followed by details of the results.
As well as increasing the knowledge of both the researchers and the reader, it goes one step further by offering areas where future research would be beneficial. Raimond (1993, p55) asks the question ‘will the evidence and my conclusions stand up to the closest scrutiny?’ which relates to the reliability of research. Could the research be repeated, and would the same results be achieved? The likelihood of this is in this instance will have been yes. The results and findings from this paper have been well thought out, well presented, and most of all, well researched.
- Conclusion
Of the two papers, the one by Beech, Chadwick and Tapp, seems to be the better presented and thought out research. Its very clear in its findings and presents the reader with enough facts behind the chosen methodology used, so that it is easy to understand.
On the other hand, the paper by Green appears very limited in its findings due to the small sample chosen. What I find disappointing in Green’s paper is that he does not explain the reasons behind selecting such a small number, and does not also make the most of the opportunities he had. Both papers are well structured however, and meet the requirements of a research paper
The chosen methodologies of both papers were correct for the kind of research they wished to do. Green’s research could have (and should have) been extended though, and usually quantitative study is carried out on a much larger scale. However, as the intention of the study was to quantify the information sources then this was the right method to use.
As research is dependent on the subject, the required outcomes, and even the style of the researcher, it is safe to say that when reviewing a research paper a reviewer will be able to identify different methods that could have been used. This is down to the vast array of methodologies available, and not every paper will be compiled the same way. Sometimes there will be better ways of conducting the research, but again this is down to the interpretation of whoever is doing the research.
During my review of the papers, it has been evident to me that qualitative research tends to be more personal, and certainly in the papers researched provides the more interesting and conclusive findings, especially from a reader’s perspective. On the other hand, a quantitative study is based more on specifics and provides more factual based information. However, this does not mean I would favour one research methodology over the other. As mentioned in my paper, the choice of methodology will be down to the type of research required.
Word count – 3193 (excluding contents, bibliography and appendices)
- References and Bibliography
Adams, G., and Schvaneveldt, J. (1991), Understanding Research Methods, 2nd edition, Longman: quoted in Collis, J. and Hussey, R. (2003) Business research: a practical guide for undergraduate and postgraduate student, Palgrave and Macmillan p65
Baruch, Y. (1999), Response Rates in Academic Studies: A Comparative Analysis, Human Relations, 52 421-434: quoted in Thomas, S., J. (2004) Using Web and Paper Questionnaires for Data-Based Decision Making, Corwin Press p89
Beech, J., Chadwick, S., and Tapp, A. (2000) Emerging trends in the use of the Internet – lessons from the football sector, Research Paper, Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal
Bell, J. (1993) Doing Your Research Project, Open University Press: quoted in Collis, J. and Hussey, R. (2003) Business research: a practical guide for undergraduate and postgraduate students, Palgrave and Macmillan p301
Black, T., R. (1993) Evaluating Social Science Research, Sage: quoted in Collis, J. and Hussey, R. (2003) Business research: a practical guide for undergraduate and postgraduate students, Palgrave and Macmillan p124
Bradford, N. and Reeve, W. (1997) Net Profits, Fletcher Research: quoted in Green, R. (1999) Football information services: fanzines, ‘Match of the Day’ and the modem, Research Paper, p20
Collins Gem English dictionary (2004), 12th ed., Harper Collins Publishers.
Collis, J. and Hussey, R. (2003) Business research: a practical guide for undergraduate and postgraduate students, Palgrave and Macmillan
Dillman, D., A. (2000), Mail and Internet Surveys: The tailored design method, New York, John Wiley, 52 421-434: quoted in Thomas, S., J. (2004) Using Web and Paper Questionnaires for Data-Based Decision Making, Corwin Press p124
Easterby-Smith, M., Thorpe, R., and Lowe, A. (1991), Management Research: An Introduction, Sage: quoted in Collis, J. and Hussey, R. (2003) Business research: a practical guide for undergraduate and postgraduate students, Palgrave and Macmillan p168
Green, R. (1999) Football information services: fanzines, ‘Match of the Day’ and the modem, Research Paper, Aslib Proceedings
Gummerson, E. (1991), Qualitative Methods in Management Research, Sage Publications: quoted in Beech, J., Chadwick, S., and Tapp, A. (2000) Emerging trends in the use of the Internet – lessons from the football sector, Research Paper, Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal, p41
Jankowicz, A., D. (1991) Business Research Projects for Students, Chapman and Hall: quoted in Collis, J. and Hussey, R. (2003) Business research: a practical guide for undergraduate and postgraduate students, Palgrave and Macmillan p118
Marshall, C., and Rossman, G., B. (1999), Designing Qualitative Research, Sage Publications, 3rd edition: quoted in Beech, J., Chadwick, S., and Tapp, A. (2000) Emerging trends in the use of the Internet – lessons from the football sector, Research Paper, Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal, p41
Raimond, P. (1993) Management Projects: Design, Research and Presentation, Chapman and Hall: quoted in Collis, J. and Hussey, R. (2003) Business research: a practical guide for undergraduate and postgraduate students, Palgrave and Macmillan p58
Stebbins, R., A. (1992) ‘Concatenated Exploration: Notes on a Neglected Type of Longitudinal Research’, Quality and Quantity 26, p435-442: quoted in Collis, J. and Hussey, R. (2003) Business research: a practical guide for undergraduate and postgraduate students, Palgrave and Macmillan p65
Tapp, A., Beech, J., G. and Chadwick, S. (1999), The culture of collecting: an opportunity for database marketers in the sport sector, Journal of Database Marketing, Vol. 6 No. 3: quoted in Beech, J., Chadwick, S., and Tapp, A. (2000) Emerging trends in the use of the Internet – lessons from the football sector, Research Paper, Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal, p38
Thomas, S., J. (2004) Using Web and Paper Questionnaires for Data-Based Decision Making, Corwin Press p89
Tufte, W., P. (1983) The Visual Display of Quantitative Information, Cheshire: Graphic Press: quoted in Collis, J. and Hussey, R. (2003) Business research: a practical guide for undergraduate and postgraduate students, Palgrave and Macmillan p301
Vogt, W., P. (1993) Dictionary of Statistics and Methodology, Newbury Park: Sage: quoted in Collis, J. and Hussey, R. (2003) Business research: a practical guide for undergraduate and postgraduate students, Palgrave and Macmillan p59 and p113
Appendix One
Appendix Two
