“In a world which is indeed our world, the one we know, a world without devils, sylphides, or vampires, there occurs an event which cannot be explained by the laws of this same familiar world. The fantastic is that hesitation experienced by a person who knows only the laws of nature confronting an apparently supernatural phenomenon.” (qtd. in Aichele 5, qtd. in Horri 67)
As far as Todorov’s ideas are concerned, this ambiguous genre is located between two other distinct genres: Uncanny and Marvelous. The Uncanny presents the bizarre events happening in the everyday world. Although they seems to be very strange and odd, later they are justifiable by some natural laws and scientific rules. The Marvelous presents a supernatural world as though it were real and waiting to be discovered somewhere in this universe (Aichele 5, Horri 61-63).
Fantasy is none of the above. It is near belief, that is, it is neither belief nor disbelief. It can be described as those moments when the reader is unable to distinguish and decide what is real (Aichele 5). However, this moment cannot last forever. Finally, the reader has to make his/her mind: whether these extraordinary events are explainable in terms of natural laws (Uncanny), or they all come from a supernatural world which is portrayed as if it is real (Marvelous). The moment the reader discerns his/her position and turns toward one of these distinct genres, fantasy “destroys” itself (6). In other words, fantasy sustains up to the moment hesitation exists.
Marvelous Marvelous Fantasy Uncanny Fantasy Uncanny
(Horri 66)
Eric Rabkin and Fantasy
Although Rabkin and Todorov have many points in common and Rabkin expresses his admiration for Todorov’s analyses, they have got different approaches toward considering fantasy as a genre. So, they present different definitions of it too.
While Todorov does not accept Fantasy as a genre and use two other distinct genres (Uncanny, and Marvelous) for its defining and locating, Rabkin accepts it as a complete genre in itself, and believes that it will come into existence when fantastic reversal (whatever that sounds odd and strange in comparison to the real world) is exhaustively central to the narrative (Aichele 10). To state it in his words:
“When linguistic perspectives continually shift within a given text, that is, when the ground rules of the narrative world are subjected to repeated reversals, we have fantasy.” (qtd. in 10)
J.R.R. Tolkien and Fantasy
Tolkien provides one of the earliest, clearest and most influential critical descriptions of fantasy. He describes it as an older and higher form of imagination that is liberated from the dominance of reality. He asserts that fantasy probably includes the events and facts which are not going to be found in the real or primary world. But the essential point is that we as readers admit this world’s being mixed by bizarre atmosphere (Mathews 56).
He observes fantasy as an escape from reality and conventional contemporary real world into the world of imagination in which talking animals and odd creatures are waiting for us to help us to investigate the rules of the new or secondary world (56-57).
Modern and postmodern fantasy
Having identigied a work of literature as fantasy, we should study it carefully to recognize its special class: whether it belongs to modern fantasy or postmodern fantasy.
To distinguish their border easily, I want to analyze three important features of a fantastic narrative toward which these classes have got different approaches.
- Form of time
In modern fantasy, the characters are displaced from modern, linear time into mythical time of the secondary world and return to linearity at the end of the novel (Nikolajeva 141). The character may live a whole life for so many years in the secondary world while no time has passed in the real primary world— like Lewis Carroll’s Alice in Wonderland.
But in postmodern fantasy it is not the same for the character. Time will pass no matter where s/he is. It is as fast as ever in its flowing. (143)
- Form of space
One of the principal feature motifs of fantasy is its secondary world.
In modern fantasy, characters almost always enter the secondary world in their dreams (of course. It should be mentioned that this fact is mostly found out at the end of the story.) Therefore, the new world can be taken as a duplication of the similar space (Nikolajeva 143)
Postmodern fantasy takes all the spatial conditions one step further. “Heterotopia” is the best word for describing the universe of the postmodern fantasy (143). Heterotopia, or multitude of disparate universes, emphasizes dissimilarity and ambiguity of the worlds (144). Therefore, in postmodern fantasy, the margins between primary world and other worlds become blurred. Although in modern fantasy, characters’ dreams and reality are obviously portrayed and separated, in postmodern fantasy there will be no awakening for characters and they often pay high price for their actions in other worlds (154).
- Characterization
In modern fantasy, characters are either good or evil (Nikolajeva 145). In other words they either are white or black and there is no gray characterization. They are not allowed to hesitate in their ethical principles and they never confront a moral choice (146). Good characters are always there to win and overcome bad and evil forces of the society.
However postmodern fantasy is so ambiguous in this part that sometimes even the reader doubt along with the characters what is true and what is wrong. Protagonist of the narrative has a complex character that is capable of surprising the reader with the decisions s/he makes (147).
Not only the protagonist, but also the supporting characters have lost their definite roles. While in modern fantasy the role of such characters is well defined as helpers or opponents of protagonist, in postmodern fantasy we can not make such decisive judgment over them because of their unpredictable actions and thoughts (149).
By detecting these features, we will be able to recognize the class of a fantasy work of literature.
Through the present study, I am going to apply all these rules on one of the work of children literature which has been published recently and come to be known very quickly. I will examine Philip Pullman’s novel from different aspects, and according to the stated definitions, to trace the track of the necessary conditions for categorizing it in one of the genre of literary works.
In the Darkness of the Dark Materials: the plot summary
Philip Pullman’s Dark Materials is a trilogy which is published in three volumes under the titles of The Northern Lights, The Subtle Knife, and The Amber Spyglass.
It is a work of literature which is apparently written for children, but in fact appreciated by the adults. It allegorically attacks the basic Christian beliefs.
The story is about Lyra Belacqua—an orphaned, eleven year old girl residing at Jordan College— who at the beginning secretly enters the Retiring Room, despite resistance from her dæmon—an animal-formed, shape-shifting manifestation of her soul. Inside the room her uncle, Lord Asriel, tells the resident scholars of the mysterious invisible particles called Dust. Shortly afterwards Lord Asriel leaves to head north, and Lyra continues with her normal life.
However, before long her friend Roger is kidnapped by "the Gobblers", who are the subject of a children's myth. Lyra vows to rescue him, and finds her chance when a lady of great importance, Mrs Coulter, offers to take Lyra away from Jordan College to become her apprentice. Lyra agrees, but before leaving, Master of the College gives her a priceless object: an alethiometer. Resembling a golden compass, it is a device able to reveal the answer to any question asked by the user. Though unable to read its complex meanings, she takes it with her to Mrs Coulter's flat. After a short time Lyra discovers Mrs Coulter's rosy exterior is just a façade concealing her cold heart, and decides to flee.
After fleeing, she finds out "Uncle" Asriel and Mrs Coulter are none other than Lyra's father and mother. Lyra finds Roger, and rescues him. She wishes to deliver the alethiometer to Lord Asriel, who is imprisoned at , the armoured bear fortress, because of his heretical experiments on Dust which the Church opposes
Despite being imprisoned, Lord Asriel is so influential that he has managed to accumulate the necessary equipment to continue his experiments on Dust. After explaining the nature of Dust and the existence of parallel universes to Lyra, he takes Roger, along with large amounts of equipment, with him into the snowy distance. Once Lyra realizes what has happened, she pursues him, only to arrive too late to save Roger, who is killed when Lord Asriel separates him from his dæmon. This act releases an enormous amount of energy, which, due to Lord Asriel’s equipment, tears a hole through the sky into a parallel world. Lord Asriel walks through into the new world, and after discussing the idea with her dæmon, Lyra decides to follow after him.
Lyra starts her journey to different worlds without knowing that she is the subject of the greatest war that has ever happened in the history of human being: a war between the church’s god and human being, and her actions are going to be very fatal.
Finally by sacrificing herself, she is able to bring peace back to the whole universe once more.
Discussion
The first question which is to be answered is whether Lyra belongs to our real world or is living in a secondary world created by the author. The answer to this question will clarify the genre of this trilogy.
Considering the first general definition of fantasy genre, the only condition which is necessary to assert the story’s being a fantasy is the existence of magic, mystery, or strange creatures. Just by reading the very first lines of the book we immediately come across this condition: Lyra and her daemon Pantalaimon, who is in the form of a well-camouflaged moth, enter the forbidden Retiring Room, which is reserved for the use of scholars and their guests. After examining the elegant meeting room and arguing over staying or leaving, the two hear someone coming, and hide behind one of the fourteen large mahogany armchairs (Pullman 1-2).
What is this strange creature which is called Pantalaimon and is able to talk with Lyra easily? Where are they, and what are they going to do?(Mystery) These initial steps are enough for letting us enter the realm of fantasy.
As we read on, Todorov’s hesitation gradually captures our mind. Through descriptions, the reader at the first sight becomes familiar with a world that is very much similar to ours: the initial setting is Oxford; the streets have the same name and forms. But all of a sudden some clues appear that disillusion him/her and s/he understands that this world is not identical by ours because its northern parts are inhabited by witches and intelligent polar bears.
So, the hesitation has started its work and the reader is deep down in fantastic world without even knowing it. Then the questions are going to take place one by one in our mind: Where is this world? Is it located in the dream or author’s imagination? When do these events happen? In the past or are they going to happen in the near future? Can we finally find out a convincing explanation behind all the plot’s events and characters’ actions?
These questions and many other ones continuously replace each other till the end of the first volume. Even at the end of the first volume, we are still uncertain and confused. However, in its sequel, The Subtle Knife, many of our questions are answered as we confront our own real world which is presented in the book as an unfamiliar world through Lyra’s eyes.
According to Todorov, up to the moment the reader is suspended and captured by hesitation, s/he is still in the world of fantasy, but when his/her doubts are cleared away s/he will identify his/her situation either with Uncanny or Marvelous. Considering this point and observing different new worlds along with the protagonist, Lyra, the reader will infer that this is no dream and the supernatural events have the same reliable existence as our own world. At this time Fantasy has destroyed itself and the reader finds him/herself in the Marvelous genre.
Therefore, we can conclude that Pullman’s trilogy can be considered a fantasy in its general sense and a Marvelous Fantastic through Toderove’s point of view.
Welcome to postmodern world
Having been convinced of the genre of Pullman’s Dark Materials as fantasy, it is time to talk over its type of fantasy. In order to categorize this novel, we must study and examine the three discussed conditions which illuminate the borderline between modern and postmodern fantasy.
As far as the form of time is concerned, we follow the flow of time uninterruptedly through this trilogy. No matter in which one of the different world of this universe she is, time is going on as ever, and at the end of these sequels we would see that she is not a child any more and she has become a young lady.
Considering the form of space, we can claim that Dark Materials is a complete Heterotopia in itself. In the first volume, The Northern Lights, the reader randomly read some facts and come across some news about the multitudinousness of the worlds. But in its sequel, the reader becomes familiar with four other different worlds in addition to the initial setting of the story. At last in the final volume, The Amber Spyglass, the reader becomes aware of this fact that there are still more strange worlds to keep track of.
The last borderline which should be examined is the characterization. Lyra, the single protagonist, is the focalizer of the narrative. The reader unconsciously accepts her subjectivity and perceives her as essentially good. However, the reader little by little comes to this point that she is not as innocent and pure as traditional fantasies characterization asked for. She is the chosen child whose actions and choices will affect the fate of the people of all different worlds. In the first volume she brings about her best friend’s death because of her wrong decision.
The ambiguity of the good and evil supporting characters is in its highest point in this novel. Lyra’s mother, Mrs. Coulter, is not represented as a good character at the beginning of the story, and the reader puts her in the evil side of the plot. And in the contrary, s/he starts to believe in Lyra’s father, Lord Asreil, as a member of good forces of the story. However, their actions and the unpredictable events of the story do not let us to have a fixed idea and opinion about them. As the story goes on, they replace each other in the reader’s imagination for lots of the times. For instance, when Lord Asreil kills Lyra’s best friend just because of his own objects (Pullman, Northern 450), the reader doubts his angle-like nature, and Lyra’s mother defends her child and sacrifice her own life for her sake (Pullman, the Amber 170-80) the reader changes his/her mind about her being completely an evil character.
Therefore, considering all the mentioned facts, it should be stated that Pullman’s Dark Materials is a postmodern fantasy.
Conclusion
All in all, it has been discussed that in order to approve a work of literature as fantasy, the existence of the following features is necessary:
- Mystery, magic, supernatural creatures, and extraordinary events.
- Kind of hesitation which makes the reader doubtful about the reality of everything in the story.
- A large number of fantastic reversals and odd happenings which are not going to be found in the real primary world.
- A secondary world which is built upon or in addition to the primary world. The primary world is defamiliarized and the secondary one will take its place.
After distinguishing a work of literature as fantasy, we can classify it into two categories: Modern and postmodern fantasy. These two classes of fantasy are different from each other in the form of time, space, and characterization.
After studying, it becomes clear that Philip Pullman’s Dark Materials includes all the necessary features of fantasy. It takes place in a secondary world which is full of supernatural creatures. Its fantastic reversals are so much that shakes its ground of reality.
Besides, the uninterrupted flowing of time in this heterotopia and its ambiguous gray characterization put this fantasy in the postmodern category.
Works Cited
Aichel, George. “Postmodern Fantasy, Idealogy, and Uncanny.” May 2007<.>
Alkon, Paul K. Science Fiction Before 1900: Imagination Discovers Technology. New York: Routledge, 2002.
Hunt, Peter. An Introduction to Children’s Literature. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1994.
Mathews, Richard. Fantasy: The Liberation of Imagination. New York: Routledge, 2002.
Morison, Patricia, and H. Gardner. “Dragons and Dinosaurs: The Child Capacity to Differentiate Fantasy from Reality.” Child Development 49 (1978): 642-648.
Nikolajeva, Maria. “Fairy Tale and Fantasy: From Archaic to Postmodern.” Marvels & Tales: Journal of Fairy-Tale Studies 17.1 (2003): 138-156.
Taylor, Marjorie. “The Role of Creative Control and Culture in Children‘s Fantasy/Reality Judgment.” Child Development 68 (December 1994): 1057-1017.
Thacker, Deborah and Jean Webb. Introducing Children’s Literature: From romanticism to postmodernism. London: Routledge, 2002.
پولمن، فیلیپ. سپیدۀ شمالی. مترجم: فرزاد فربد. تهران: کتاب پنجره، 1383.
-----. خنجر ظریف. مترجم: فرزاد فربد. تهران: کتاب پنجره، 1384.
-----. دوربین کهربایی. مترجم: فرزاد فربد. تهران: کتاب پنجره، 1385.
حرّی، ابوالفضل. "وهمناک در ادبیات کهن ایران." پژوهش زبان های خارجی. شمارۀ 34، زمستان 1385: 76-61 .
My translation and paraphrase of the first paragraphs of the novel as the English version has not been available for quoting.