By looking at these statistics, we know which of the greenhouse gases is the most hazardous. As stated in the last page, carbon dioxide is considered to be the most effective heat absorber because most of it lingers in the atmosphere for a longer period of time than the other greenhouse gases. But the table above shows the effectiveness of the gases when they are present in the same length of time.
Studying the Greenhouse Effect.
Researchers use high-speed computers to study how carbon dioxide concentration may affect surface temperature. The computers manipulate mathematical models, sets of equations that describe relationships between changeable factors. Scientists do not have enough data to prove that variations in the amounts of carbon dioxide and other gases in the atmosphere cause shifts in surface temperature. They may need until the 2010's to gather enough data. But certain models suggest that the 2010's may be too late to avoid some damage from global warming.
Scientists have also examined evidence from the distant past to determine whether changes in carbon dioxide concentration cause temperature changes. Cores of ice drilled from great depths in Greenland and Antarctica provide a record for the past 160,000 years. During those years, the climate warmed and cooled several times. Researchers analyzed the gases and other substances that were trapped in the ice when it formed. During the cooler periods, the atmosphere contained about 30 per cent less carbon dioxide and 50 per cent less methane than during the warmer periods.
A useful measure of possible global warming may be the Antarctic ice. In the mid-1990s it was discovered that a huge piece of ice containing 500 cubic kilometers of frozen water had broken away from the Antarctic Peninsula. Scientists of the British Antarctic survey believed this suggested that a new climatic pattern was emerging in the Antarctic region. Measurements taken in the Antarctic have shown the average temperature there to rise more than two degrees Celsius since 1930.
THE POSSIBLE IMPACTS OF GLOBAL WARMING
Global Warming is expected to result in two main types of impacts:
- Primary (environmental) Impacts, and
- Secondary Impacts
PRIMARY (ENVIRONMENTAL) IMPACTS
It is the change in weather patterns. As scientists have stated, temperature will rise in the effect of global warming. Global warming affects many aspects of the environment, including sea levels, coastlines, agriculture, forestry, and wildlife. Continued global warming could have a beneficial impact in some areas and a harmful impact in others. For example, people could begin to farm in regions where it is currently too cold. At the same time, global warming could cause sea levels to rise and thereby increase the threat of flooding in low-lying coastal areas, many of which are densely populated.
To determine the impact of global warming, scientists must consider the rate of climate change. Many experts estimate that, due to human activities, the average surface temperature will rise between 1.5 and 4.5 degrees Celsius by 2100. But even a warming of 0.5 degree in a century would be several times faster than the typical natural rate. A rapid and large-scale climate change could severely harm the earth's ecosystems (the living organisms and physical environment in particular areas). For example, such a change could make it difficult for many species to survive in the regions they now inhabit. Some could be forced to migrate, while others could become extinct.
SECONDARY IMPACTS
These are the impact of global warming on the people living in the affected regions. They would have to adapt to new land use patterns and get used to the changed environmental conditions. Some regions will benefit while others will be adversely affected.
HOW POLLUTED IS BRUNEI DARUSSALAM?
Although to date Brunei Darussalam has no major environmental pollution problems, it is realized that proper management of the quality of the environment is essential in view of population growth, urbanization and economic development. Air pollution control is now a growing concern in Brunei Darussalam. It is realized that there is a lack of information due to the lack of studies in the area. However, in general the air quality appears to be comparatively clean. This nonetheless does not mean that Brunei Darussalam is free from air pollution. Some studies have indicated a very high TSP level. Wind blown dusts are the most likely sources. Brunei Darussalam has also experienced episodes of . Haze frequently occurs in Brunei Darussalam, especially between May and October when the southwesterly monsoon winds prevail. This period is the less wet period of the year and the atmosphere is also relatively stable. The occurrences of haze in the country range from slight transient hazy condition to severe haze episodes.
SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION IN BRUNEI
There are several sources of air pollutants in Brunei Darussalam. Presently no study have been undertaken to properly investigate the contribution of these sources to severe episodes of haze in the country.
Emission From Motor Vehicles:
- There are several sources of air pollutants in Brunei Darussalam. Presently no study have been undertaken to properly investigate the contribution of these sources to severe episodes of haze in the country.
- Vehicle emission tests are also being carried out as part of the registration process. The testing of gasoline vehicles include emission test for carbon dioxide and hydrocarbons at idle and for diesel vehicle a smoke test at free acceleration. Similarly, motor vehicles are also tested for carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon levels.
Industrial Emissions:
- Again, no study have been undertaken to investigate the contribution of these sources to haze episodes in the country. Nonetheless, smoke from hot mix asphalt plants and brick kilns have been observed to contribute to occurrences of localized pollution problems.
- There is no specific legislation to control air emissions from industries in Brunei Darussalam at the moment. Enforcement activities are relying mostly on the administrative orders and code of practice as well as the goodwill of the management.
Open Burning
- Open burning at the moment is still a common practice. Open burning though discouraged is nonetheless observed during land clearing activities for development, agriculture at construction sites and at rubbish dumpsites. Uncontrolled open burning has also sometimes led to occurrences vegetation fires.
- The practice of open burning generates smoke, which have been observed to cause cases of localized pollution problems. The contribution of open burning to episodes of severe haze in the country has also not been properly studied.
Forest Fires
- Due to occurrences of dry spells vegetation fires occur quite frequently in Brunei Darussalam. As recorded by the Fire Department there were 382 reported cases of vegetation fires in 1994 that destroyed around 390 hectares of vegetation cover. The highest recorded occurrences of forest fires recorded in forest reserves were from May to September.
- The causes for the majority of the fires were unknown. But, for all known causes they were a result of open burning activities. Local vegetation fires can be argued as the major contributor for occurrences of haze episodes in the country but, their effect are mainly localized.
Other Sources
- The other sources of pollutants which could be potential contributors of haze episodes include volcanic eruptions and as a result of man's activities. The eruption of Mt. Pinatubo, Philippines in 1991 was responsible for the volcanic fallout experienced in the Country. It was reported that as much as 0.024 g/sq. m of ash fell over Brunei Darussalam over a 24-hour period on June 15. However the contribution of Mt. Pinatubo eruption towards the severe haze episode in 1991 was not established.
- In April 1989 gas caught fire when a well blow out occurred in Rasau, Brunei Darussalam. The fire lasted from the 25th of April to the 8th of May. As a result thick smoke covered most part of Kuala Belait and Seria. Soot was also deposited in the area.
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Earthworks and construction activities in Brunei Darusssalam is presently very active and is a potential source of dust. High dust levels of 240 ug/m3 have been recorded in residential and town areas. In an effort to control dust pollution, trucks carrying earth or gravel are required to cover their load. Dusty work sites are also asked to sprinkle water so as to suppress dust particles.
WHAT CAN BE DONE?
Because global warming might do much harm, many scientists recommend a reduction in the emissions of greenhouse gases. The least controversial way to reduce such emissions would be to use gains in efficiency to decrease the use of energy. For example, manufacturers would adopt more efficient processes to produce goods. Makers of electrical equipment would introduce more efficient motors, light bulbs, and other devices. New manufacturing equipment and the new devices might be more costly than those they replaced. However, the savings resulting from decreased energy consumption might help make up for the extra costs. As a result, the new technologies could reduce emissions and save money.
Experts have also offered a number of more controversial strategies. For example, governments could create regulations that specify the type of technologies used or the amount of fossil fuels burned. Many policy analysts recommend that governments consider a tax on emissions of greenhouse gases.
Another option would limit the amount of greenhouse gases each nation emits. Under this plan, each country would receive emissions "permits" that could be bought and sold. Richer nations with higher emissions per person could purchase permits from poorer nations with lower emissions per person. Thus, the more developed countries would have incentives to create and use more efficient technologies, and less developed countries would receive money that could be used to aid their development.
Efforts to prevent global warming. Because global warming might do much harm, many scientists recommend a reduction in the emissions of greenhouse gases. The least controversial way to reduce such emissions would be to use gains in efficiency to decrease the use of energy. For example, manufacturers would adopt more efficient processes to produce goods. Makers of electrical equipment would introduce more efficient motors, light bulbs, and other devices. New manufacturing equipment and the new devices might be more costly than those they replaced. However, the savings resulting from decreased energy consumption might help make up for the extra costs. As a result, the new technologies could reduce emissions and save money.
Experts have also offered a number of more controversial strategies. For example, governments could create regulations that specify the type of technologies used or the amount of fossil fuels burned. Many policy analysts recommend that governments consider a tax on emissions of greenhouse gases.
Another option would limit the amount of greenhouse gases each nation emits. Under this plan, each country would receive emissions "permits" that could be bought and sold. Richer nations with higher emissions per person could purchase permits from poorer nations with lower emissions per person. Thus, the more developed countries would have incentives to create and use more efficient technologies, and less developed countries would receive money that could be used to aid their development.
WHAT HAVE THE GOVERNMENT OF BRUNEI DONE IN ORDER TO MAINTAIN GOOD ENVIRONMENT?
Some of the actions that have been taken by the Brunei Government are:
- Estimated pollution load from industrial waste is low compared to that of domestic waste. All pollutive industries are required to adopt clean technology available. Brunei Darussalam's industrial activities have been dominated by the oil-based sector. Onshore and offshore oil field operations produce various types of liquid wastes. Other liquid wastes generated are comparatively insignificant in terms of volume or pollution load.
- Vehicle emission tests are also being carried out as part of the registration process. The testing of gasoline vehicles include emission test for carbon dioxide and hydrocarbons at idle and for diesel vehicle a smoke test at free acceleration. Similarly, motor vehicles are also tested for carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon levels.
- In Brunei Darussalam there is a high degree of dependency on private transportation. As mentioned above, Sulphur content of gasoline and diesel fuels used in Brunei Darussalam is relatively low. In an effort to reduce lead emission, unleaded gasoline (ULG) was introduced in January 1993. It was reported that the level of usage after the first month was almost 70%. Based on the first month usage, the emission of inorganic lead into the environment from vehicles has been reduced approximately 20 tons/year. The recent increase in car import tax and efforts in improving public transport may help curb the increase in per capita car ownership.
- Brunei Darussalam's Fifth NDP introduced the Forest Conservation and Protection Policy that has designated the national forests into Conservation Forest, Protection Forest and Production Forest. This policy has taken into consideration the need to conserve and protect the tropical flora and fauna biodiversity of the Brunei forests. It also takes into consideration the need to protect the water catchment areas and promote replanting of wasteland. The rich tropical rainforest of Brunei Darussalam consists of seven major forest types.
- The coastal waters of Brunei Darussalam are also rich in aquatic life. The coral reefs and artificial reefs in Brunei waters provide fish habitats and support numerous marine lives.
ENVIRONMEMTAL MEETINGS THAT BRUNEI HAS ATTENDED
The Vienna Convention
The Montreal Protocol (1987)
The London Amendments 1990
The Copenhagen Amendments 1992
CONCLUSION
IS GLOBAL WARMING REALLY BAD?
Ice Sheet Retreat Is Natural and Inevitable.
Proponents if the global warming hypothesis argues that the retreat of polar glaciers supports their views. Others disagree, arguing that the melting of glaciers cannot be tied to manmade global warming and are likely a result of natural processes. There was a new study in Science (October 8, 1999) supporting the latter view.
According to the study, the West Antarctic Ice Sheet (WAIS) has retreated 1300 km since the last 20,000 years ago. A complete collapse of the WAIS would cause sea level to rise by 5 to 6 meters. For the last 7,500 years, the grounding line of the WAIS has retreated approximately 120 meters per year, and, according to the study, “recent measurements indicate that the grounding-line retreat is continuing at about the same rate.” If the retreat continues at the same rate the “complete deglaciation will take about 7,000 years.”
It was concluded that the modern grounding-line retreat is part of ongoing recession that has been under way since early to mid-Holocene time. It is not a consequence of anthropogenic warming or recent sea level rise. In other words, the future of the WAIS may have been predetermined when grounding-line retreat was triggered in early Holocene time. Continued recession and perhaps even complete disintegration of the WAIS within the present interglacial period could well be inevitable.
Global Warming May Lower Sea Levels
It was argued that there is an inverse relationship between global temperatures and sea levels, due to sea surface evaporation that transports moisture to the polar ice caps.
Another scientist said that global warming could cause sea level to fall for a different reason. Dr. Bratton argues that temperature rise would cause the melting of “clathrates” which are seafloor crystals of ice that enclose gases such as methane. When these crystals melt, the gas escapes leaving a hole that could cause sea levels to fall by as much as 25 meters.
In Reader’s Digest (September 1999), Avery wrote that global warming may be coming but it won’t necessarily be extreme. The world has experienced approximately that much warming between AD 900 and 1300, the earth warmed by about one-and-a-half degrees. Scholars refer to that period as one of the most favorable in human history. Food production surged because winters were milder and growing seasons longer. Key agricultural regions experienced fewer floods and droughts. There was more rainfall but it evaporated faster. Death rates declined in many places, partly because of the decrease in hunger and partly because people spent less time huddled in damp, smoke-filled hovels that helped spread tuberculosis and other infectious diseases. Trade flourished in part because there were fewer storms at sea. The Vikings discovered Greenland around 950, it was so warm there that the colonists supported themselves by pasturing cattle on what is now frozen tundra
The expected increase in carbon dioxide levels due to the burning of fossil fuels could create a “plant heaven”. Carbon dioxide acts as a fertilizer for plants. More than a thousand experiments with food crops in 29 countries shows that doubling the world’s carbon dioxide would raise crop yields by half.
Most of the estimates of global warming were based on forecasts that place such as New York and Bangladesh would be drowned under rising seas from melting polar ice caps. That frightening scenario, scientists say, is untrue. A modest warming in the normally cold and dry Polar Regions will actually mean more arctic ice, not less. If temperatures warm a few degrees, there will be more moisture in the air, more snowfall, and more polar ice.
S. Fred Singer, professor emeritus of Environmental Sciences at the University of Virginia, says that the smaller the temperature differences between the North Pole and the equator, the milder the weather. Most of the warming will be towards the poles, with very little increase near the equator. Thus, there would be less of the temperature difference that drives big storms.
History and the science of climatology indicate that we have nothing to fear. Any global warming in the twenty first century should be modest, bringing back one of the most pleasant and productive environments humans – and wildlife – have never enjoyed.
APPLICATION OF THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES IN SOLUTIONS.
Functionalist Theory
In a functionalist view, society is a network of institutions, e.g. marriage and religion, that are related to and dependent on one another. According to this theory, a measurable change in one institution would cause a change in the others. In the case of global warming, everybody believes that it could bring much disaster to the world. Therefore, each and every institution in a society or country should work together in order to eliminate or reduce future negative impacts.
Interactional Theory
It is up to an individual for him/her to do what is considered right. A person’s action is either frontstage or backstage, in other words, his/her actions are either acceptable or non-acceptable by the society. The people who damages the environment should have their eyes opened up to the impacts of the coming global warming, which could be decreased by better attitudes toward saving the environment.
Conflict Theory
This theory stresses on classes and class divisions. For the solution of global warming and the emission of greenhouse gases, people who are in the upper class should be responsible in controlling the people in the lower class. This is because, the people in the upper class are more respected and their voices are always heard.
FOOTNOTES
- Chlorofluorocarbons
- Gases that are produced naturally by the environment
- Carbon dioxide
- Methane
- Ozone
- Gases produced by human activities
- Gases produced biologically (naturally)
- Animal of the type that brings back food from its stomach and chews it again e.g. cows, sheep.
- A total quantity of forest (or any living things) in a given area or volume
- Hydrofluorocarbons
- Hydrochlorofluorocarbons
- Atoms of an element arranged in an alternative way
- A layer of the atmosphere that extends from about 6-10 kilometers upwards from the earth’s surface
REFERENCES
Avery, D. (1999, September) What’s Wrong With Global Warming. Reader’s Digest, 73,(438), 23-25.
Ierland, E.C. & Gorka, K. (1996). Economics of Atmospheric Pollution. Germany : Springer-Verlag.
Ince, M. (1990). The Rising Seas. London: Cox and Wyman Ltd.`1
Makofske, W.J. & Karlin, E.F. (1995). Technology and Global Environmental Issues. New York : Harper Collins
McCormick, J. (1995). The Global Environmental Movement (2nd ed.). Great Britain: Biddles Ltd.
Mendelsohn,R. & Rosenberg, N.J. (1994). Framework for Integrated Assessments of Global Warming Impacts. In K.D. Frederick & N.J. Rosenberg (Eds.) Assessing the Impacts of Climate Change on Natural Resource Systems (pp.15-44). Netherlands : Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Plimmer, D., Parkinson, E. & Carlton, K. (1996). The Environment. Great Britain : Redwood Books.
Suplee, C. (1998). Unlocking The Climate Puzzle. National Geographic, 193,(5), 38-71.
