Critically discuss the links between social theory and social research.
SOC 103 Exploring Social Research
Critically discuss the links between social theory and social research
Student: Jennifer Gartland
Student no: 032805136
Module tutor: Andrew Hope
This essay will identify the links between social research and social theory. Social theory can be defined as 'a set of ideas or abstract knowledge to explain the social world'1, likewise, research can be defined as, 'an investigation to discover facts or collect information'2 again this is in relation to the social world. Firstly we will consider the schools of thought; objectivity, subjectivity, realism and idealism, and say how these influence the aims, methods and processes of social research. Next this essay will identify the links between social theory and social research, identifying the approaches of inductivism, deductivism, paradigms, critical theory and ethnomethodology.
An important school of thought in social research is objectivity. It refers to the lack of bias or prejudice when carrying out research. May (2001) identifies that if our own values do not interfere with the research it is objective. This objective view predetermines what type of research to carry out, which tends to be quantitive techniques. Experiments will be set up so that particular effects are being looked at from the outset, this predetermination of what to look for is reproduced in other research methods in order to obtain an objective outcome. But can social research be objective? As mentioned in the introduction social research is an investigation into social life and we (the researchers) are part of this social life. May (2001) asks the question, 'is it possible to suspend our sense of belonging'3.
Subjectivity, on the other hand, embraces this method. It is personal and focuses ion the meanings that people give to their environment. Researchers are said to have a better understanding, as they are part of this environment. Observational research methods may be used and the data derived is seen as being more personal and idiosyncratic than answers to questions on a schedule. It is argued that such subjective research relies heavily on the ability of the researcher and therefore influences the results of the study.
The perspective of realism also defines research methods. This focuses upon the ...
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Subjectivity, on the other hand, embraces this method. It is personal and focuses ion the meanings that people give to their environment. Researchers are said to have a better understanding, as they are part of this environment. Observational research methods may be used and the data derived is seen as being more personal and idiosyncratic than answers to questions on a schedule. It is argued that such subjective research relies heavily on the ability of the researcher and therefore influences the results of the study.
The perspective of realism also defines research methods. This focuses upon the external world. The knowledge people have of this world effects their behaviour, sometimes without awareness. According to May (2001) Realism can be associated with the works of Karl Marx, who argued that capitalism had a 'central structural mechanism' which distinguished it from other political and economic systems4. This task of realist research methods reflects this thinking; they want to explain social events through the understanding of the underlying mechanisms. Collier (1994) quotes;
'If researchers simply content themselves with studying everyday social life, such as conversations and interactions between people, this will distract them from an investigation of the underlying mechanisms which make those possible in the first instance.'5
Idealism, on the other hand, concentrates on the realm of thought. It argues that different people warrant different perspectives when considering an object. The realistic view of an underlying mechanism shaping societies is not comprehended. It is not cause and effect, but investigates people's interpretations of events. Like subjectivity methods of research involve focus on understandings and meanings that people give to their environment. Methods such as participant observation and focused interviewing are used, where results are opinions and tend not to be quantifiable.
This essay has thus far looked at the debates surrounding the research process and how different disciplines affect the way in which research is done. The next part of the essay examines the relationship between theory and research.
It is generally agreed that there is a two-way relationship between social theory and social research. Social theory informs our understanding of issues, which in turn assists us in making research decisions and in making sense of the social world. Likewise, the experience of doing research and its findings influences our theorising.6
The approach of inductivism involves first compiling the data from the research and then the theory is derived from these results. Therefore it can be said that the theories are based solely in fact, and these facts speak for themselves; distinct from the researchers interpretations. Can this truly be the case? It was identified earlier that research in the social sciences was not a neutral recording instrument. They are influenced by: particular vested interests, personal interests and subjectively speaking the researchers opinions and perceptions are involved.
An alternative to induction is deduction. This involves the production of research based on the theory. It suggests that if our theories or ideas about the social world are correct then this will be backed up from the results of the research. The question can then be asked, how much research is required to prove the theory right? Karl Popper (1959) suggests that by rendering theories testable they are open to falsification, he says, 'It must be possible for an empirical scientific system to be refuted by experience.'7
However, if the empirical evidence falsifies the theory, is this sufficient reason to reject it? It may be argued that the evidence was exceptional, a deviant, and testing procedures were flawed. As May (2001) points out, researchers are unlikely to abandon a falsified theory until a new theory is produced to explain the findings.
Popper's idea that the progression of social science occurs through the falsification of theories is contested by the works of Thomas Kuhn (1970). Kuhn suggests that although theories are falsified and refuted they remain subject to continuous research. There is always evidence that both supports and refutes them. He believes that theories form into scientific paradigms. Unlike inductivism and deductivism, these paradigms do not provide rules for research methods, but provide examples of good practice. Scientists share assumptions, concepts and theories and agree on research methods. If evidence were found to falsify a theory it would be the researchers capability called into question. These dominant paradigms are only challenged as a result of what Kuhn terms, 'scientific revolutions'. These may involve the retirement of a dominant scientist or a younger scientist with new ideas entering the field.
Kuhn's ideas of a single dominant paradigm are refuted within the social sciences. It is believed that it is characterised by several paradigms reflecting the divisions with regard to different research aims and methods. These are said to in turn reflect the many divisions within our society.
Therefore it has been identified that social science is a dynamic discipline, with which some of the perspectives have been identified within this essay. Within these perspectives there is a strong link between social research and social theory, each determining the other depending on which discipline is followed.
Bibliography
Harvey, L and MacDonald, M (1993) Doing Sociology: a practical introduction, London, Macmillan Press
May, T (2001) Social Research: Issues, methods and processes, Buckingham, Open University Press
Introduction to the philosophy of social research: the nature review and critique. URL
http://uk.geocities.com/balihar_sanghera/ipsrreviewandcritique.html
Qualitative Research Methods: Social theory and Social Research. URL
http://uk.geocities.com/balihar_sanghera/qrmsocialtheory.html
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2 adapted from Collins English Dictionary 11th edition (2003)
3 May, T (2001) Social research, Open University Press, p9
4 adapted from May, T (2001) Social research, Open University Press, p 12
5 Collier (1994) cited in May, T (2001) Social research, Open University Press, p12
6 adapted from http://uk.geocities.com/balihar_sanghera/qrmsocialtheory.html
7 Popper, K (1959) cited in May, T (2001) Social research, Open University Press, p 34