international outlook to support the interests of these immigrants.
‘Over the next decade there will be a significant increase in most European
countries as middle-aged people from minority ethnic groups reach
retirement. Minority ethnic elders are more likely to face a greater level of
poverty, live in poorer quality housing, and have poorer access to benefits
and pensions than fellow citizens.’ (SEEM, 2005, p.1)
This predicted dilemma will inevitably fall into the responsibilities of the Social Services
across Europe, and the social worker will be expected to address these individuals
concerns directly. Understanding why ethnic groups are more likely to fall prey to such a
predicament may not only help the social services tackle these issues, but could help
social workers to understand and put strategies in place to address these issues.
Many immigrants may not understand the concept of social work let alone our legislation,
equality of opportunity, customs, habits, values, and faiths of which may be outside their
frame of reference. Many of these perceptions are influenced by the environment in
which they exist, through ‘family and social relationships, child rearing, education,
systems of belief and religion...’ (O’Hagan, 1999, p.273). So, expecting an immigrant to
make a smooth transition of integration from one culture to the next is quite a tall order.
Several countries in the EU have attempted to gain a true picture of the issues concerning
integration of ethnic minorities. Many research bodies across Europe have contributed to
the SEEM project, carrying out studies on problems faced by ethnic minority elders. The
objective of drawing together concepts and issues from different countries is to help build
a common framework of values and intervention, in order to improve service delivery
and help ethnic minorities overcome barriers, to make sure their needs are better met and
to help the progression towards a global community of cultural diversity.
The Association of International Friendship and the Institute for Gerontology in
Dortmund, Germany, organises meetings attended by local politicians, service providers
and interested citizens from all ethnic persuasions. The aim is to build up a network to
exchange information and ‘encourage a better involvement of elders in the work of
mosques and social centres.’ Having recognised needs from these different minority
groups, there became an ‘increased trust on the part of minority ethnic organisations and
groups in Dortmund. They are becoming more open to solutions which enable minority
ethnic elders to participate socially and to improve existing services to meet their needs.’
(SEEM, 2005, p.12)
By sharing valuable information and experiences like this, social services in other
countries can learn by example when striving for better service delivery. The outlook on
religious and ethnic identity in Europe and the UK may impact and influence other
country’s perceptions and attitudes towards integration of religious and ethnic minorities.
So, it is important that social services in Europe and the UK understand different ethnic
and religious identities.
Stigmatisation
Social Stigma refers to prejudice of personal characteristics or beliefs of those belonging
to a different race, ethnic group, social class or culture. Characteristics and beliefs that go
against the perceived cultural norms often fall foul of observations based on the premise
of limited information or knowledge one has of another’s culture. ‘If an individual or
group does not have the characteristics specified desirable, they become socially
excluded and subjected to marginalization.’ (Dominelli, 2002, p.38). Stigmatisation is a
form of negative stereotyping that can lead to discrimination and social exclusion on an
institutional level, such as ‘reduced access to housing, education and jobs, [and on an
individual level] poor mental health, physical illness, academic underachievement, low
social status, and poverty.’ (Major & O’Brien, 2005, p. 394),
There is every chance that discriminatory practice is commonplace within the health and
social services here in the UK. Pan American Health Organization (2003) claims that
HIV/AIDS-related stigma is evident within the Health Sector, ‘Discriminatory acts vary
from inappropriate comments to breaches of patient confidentiality, from treatment
delayed to treatment and basic care and hygiene refused.’
If stigma is so firmly rooted within societies and its institutions, it is therefore essential
that the social services and the social worker is aware of causes of social stigma and its
indications when assisting service users of ethnic and religious identity. This will enable
them to interact appropriately to address issues in a respectful, non-discriminatory
manner, and to help them recognize and challenge unjust policies or conditions that
contribute to stigmatization, thus encourage greater equity in society.
Cultural Conflicts
Attitudes towards the rise of a multi-ethnic society vary wildly within the UK and
Europe, some people welcome it, or resist and oppose to it, others just accept it as a fact
of life. Yet there is an ‘aggressive hostility towards Islam, expressed in ways unthinkable
in relation to other beliefs.’ (Parekh, 2002, p. 10) One explanation for this is because
western media has increasingly been less sympathetic to, and more analytical of the
interpretations of Islam since the atrocities of 9/11 and the 7/7 London bombings. These
interpretations again have been based on the premise of what little information or
knowledge one has of Islam.
Muslim communities have experienced increased vilification and verbal abuse, living in
fear and uncertainty. This does not instil much faith and trust within themselves, and has
a detrimental effect on encouraging Islamic population to embrace Western civilisation.
Hostility towards Islam can lead to a lower self-esteem among individuals in the Muslim
community, prompting retaliation against the society that excludes them.
This can prove a difficult task for social workers if they are seen to represent the society
that excludes them. A sense of trust can become an issue between the client and service
provider, the clients’ needs may go un-addressed if their trust is not gained. When these
problems go unassisted, people can become even more isolated, less noticed, and more
easily overlooked by those with the power and resources to support them. For these
reasons it is important to understand ethnic and religious identities in order to help
eradicate or at least restrain these issues.
Legislation
Respect for ethnic and religious minorities are reflected in the Social Workers Codes Of
Practice, ‘1.6 Respecting diversity and different cultures and values’ (General Social Care Council, 2005, p.15). Service providers are also legally obliged to protect the interests of the service user, to practice in an anti-oppressive and anti-discriminatory manner, and to protect the rights of individuals as clients of social services. For example, the statute (Great Britain. Children Act 1989) states: For securing that where possible the local authority foster parent with whom a child is to be placed is-
(i) of the same religious persuasion as the child; or
(ii) gives an undertaking that the child will be brought up in that
religious persuasion;
Clarifications of duty such as these are to deliberately enhance the social workers
awareness of the multicultural nature of today’s society. Therefore, the importance of
understanding ethnic and religious identity is critical for the Social Worker simply if they
are to comply with the law and operate within the standards of professional conduct.
Conflicts with Legislation
Certain customs and beliefs that have evolved in foreign countries may not be agreed and
accepted by the western mindset. For example, female circumcision is mainly practiced
in African countries and tends to be associated with traditional initiation rites. However,
‘In Britain, female circumcision is illegal, and carries a maximum sentence of 14 years’
imprisonment.’ (Woolcock, 2006), this is due to the introduction of the FGM (Female
Genital Mutilation) Act 2003.
The Foundation for Women’s Health Research and Development, stated that:
Female circumcision among the African community in Britain has been
commonplace for years but the wider population has been unaware of it.
Now, however, police, social services and health workers have become
concerned. They believe it to be widespread, with about 25,000 young girls
remaining at risk in Britain… (Woolcock, 2006)
This example is one of many foreign customs that conflict with British law. It is
important that Social workers are aware of the motives behind such practice because it
exposes the risks young African immigrants may encounter. Beliefs and customs cannot
be accepted if they transgress the legal parameters of the host country. If possible,
compromises can be struck whereby every effort is made to accommodate the client’s
morals, beliefs and customs. The outcome would ideally avoid undermining the client’s
religious or ethnic identity, whilst preventing any unlawful activity continuing.
Climbie Inquiry
Europe and the UK are immersed with many different multiple identities. For members of
the social services to acquaint themselves with such a range of cultures and behavioural
patterns of all ethnic and religious groups may prove impractical. Consequently a social
worker could regard oppressive behaviour patterns as ‘aspects of their culture, which
those from other cultures (i.e. white, middle class social workers) have no right to
criticize.’ (O’Hagan, 1999, p.277). This level of sensitivity can lead to too much
emphasis on ethnic or religious circumstances, and as a result, fail to make a balanced
overall judgement during assessments. Transgressions in past cases have been
overlooked by such assumptions being made on behalf of the social worker.
For instance, the Climbie family originated from the Ivory Coast located in West Africa.
Her parents sent their daughter Victoria, over to the UK with her Aunt in the year 2000 in
the hope of a brighter future. Unfortunately, during the 11 months she was residing in the
UK, she was subjected to a terrible case of cruelty and neglect at the hands of her Auntie.
Victoria was known to the social services throughout this time as suspicion grew
surrounding the possibility of child abuse. On many occasions, the family were visited
by a Social Worker. Vital observations of Victoria’s behaviour were overlooked by
assumptions made on behalf of the Social Worker involved. For instance, the Climbie
Inquiry Final Report highlights in section 16 ‘Working With Diversity’ that Victoria
would stand to attention before her Aunt. The Social Worker involved concluded that:
This type of relationship was one that can be seen in many Afro-Caribbean
families because respect and obedience are very important features of the
Afro-Caribbean family script". Victoria's parents, however, made it clear
that she was not required to stand in this formal way when she was at home
with them… (Laming, 2003)
Therefore, it appears that this assumption, in Victoria's case at least, was inaccurate.
Within three months of arriving in the country, Victoria was admitted into hospital for
treatment on minor injuries. The Laming Report indicates that on more than one
occasion:
medical practitioners who noticed marks on Victoria's body considered the
possibility that children who have grown up in Africa may be expected to
have more marks on their bodies than those who have been raised in
Europe. This assumption, regardless of whether it is valid or not, may
prevent a full assessment of those marks being made… ( Laming, 2006)
Consequently, Victoria’s neglect continued to go un-addressed, suffering at the hands of
her Aunties deliberate maltreatment until she met her demise in the months that followed.
In this case, the assessment failed to address the protection needs of the child, one of the
reasons being because of the assumptions based on what was considered appropriate and
inappropriate within ethnic and religious context. The concept of Afro-Caribbean
behaviour referred to in Victoria's case illustrates the implications if cultural, ethnic and
religious differences are not fully acknowledged.
Conclusion
This essay aims to demonstrate the importance of understanding different ethnic and
religious identity by drawing on interconnected aspects which are global, national, and
personal.
Globally, the SEEM Project demonstrates the importance of understanding ethnic and
religious differences in the UK and Europe. Social workers have therefore to promote
egalitarianism on an international as well as national level. SEEM also identifys how the
professional social worker can help to fit the globalising agendas on terms that are
consistent with clients’ ethnic or religious aspirations.
Nationally, legislative parameters and cultural conflicts highlight the importance of
understanding different ethnic and religious identities if we are to work towards a fully
‘integrated’ society. Absence of awareness of cultural difference only sustains
marginalization and social exclusion of different ethnic or religious groups.
On a more personal level, the Climbie Inquiry demonstrates how service providers’
assumptions reduce their capacity to critically engage with clients from different ethnic
backgrounds. As it is impractical for service providers to thoroughly acquaint themselves
with the range of cultures and behavioural patterns that exist, acknowledging ones own
limitations of understanding of ethnic and religious differences (in other words – ‘to
know enough to know you know nothing’), persuades one to seek out further assistance
or information when required.
Otherwise, ill judgment, stigmatization and discrimination will continue to perpetuate,
whereas, a better understanding can help bridge the gap between service users and service
providers.
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