Outer Mongolia was largely left on its own for a hundred years, where they peacefully practised Buddhism introduced by the Tibetans. Eventually, however, the Qing dynasty was able to corrupt Buddhism in Outer Mongolia, and gained power in the region.
It was only in 1911, when the Qing dynasty collapsed, that the Russians had a great amount of influence on the Mongolians. With the help of Russian forces, Outer Mongolia immediately claimed their independence from China in 1921, and in 1924, again with the help of Soviet forces, the Mongolian People’s Republic was proclaimed.
Until the end of the Soviet era, Mongolia was very much under Soviet control. It relied heavily on Soviet economic support and modelled its administration and economic development on the Soviet pattern. In the 1960s the copying of the Soviets reached its peak: an intensive program of industrialization commenced. The implementation of the industrialization program conflicted with many environmental values viewed amongst most Mongolian pastoralists. The industrialization of the nation affected the Mongolian nation and culture for many years after.
The Buddhist religious establishment, for example, controlled most aspects of Mongolian society, at least in Outer Mongolia, prior to the 1930s. It played a large part of religious and cultural identity of the Mongolians, and was interwoven into everyday life: it funded and ran the education, judiciary, and health care systems. The Soviets, however, saw the Buddhists as a hindrance to the Mongolian revolution lead by the communist Soviets because of their different belief and value systems, and as a result, almost anything related to Buddhism was abolished in the country by the Soviets (Gilberg & Svantesson 1996: 13).
In the early 1980s, the rise of Gorbachev as the new Soviet leader spurred a negative reaction amongst Mongolians toward his new policies. Because of this, opposition demonstrations in 1989 led the ruling Mongolian People’s Revolutionary Party (MPRP) to call multi-party elections following which, in 1992, the communist state was dismantled, and the People’s Republic of Mongolia became the State of Mongolia (Altangerel, 2001: 4).
Nationalism
Mongolia’s history continues to play a large role in Mongolian identity, especially the legacy of Chinggis Khan and his successors. While other nations like Russia might think of the Khan dynasty as destroyers, Mongolians have always seen him as the centre and origin of the national history and the founder of their independent statehood. It is not surprising then, to see Mongolian interest and pride in Chinggis Khan (Sabloff 2001: 102 ).
Prior to Russian rule, the Mongolians were generally a peaceful population of nomadic pastoralists, who, many of them, practiced Buddhism. However, in the past few decades, by mechanically copying other nations (like the Soviet industrialization during the 1960s), Mongolia almost lost its cultural roots, customs, and traditions. In 1989 the Mongolia People’s Revolutionary Party (MPRP) recognized this problem and initiated a “Mongolian nationalist revival” (Bruun & Odgaard 1996: 33). Efforts were made to change the negative perspective of Chinggis Khan, whom Russia—as a conquered nation—had described as a “bloodthirsty and aggressive feudal lord” (Bruun & Odgaard 1996: 33). Plans were also made for the reintroduction of the Mongolian script into schools, as the Russians had enforced their language in Mongolia during their rule. Furthermore, Mongolian national holidays, like Tsagaan Sar, (the traditional Mongolian New Year festival), and Naadam, (the traditional summer festival of horse-riding, wrestling and archery), were once again celebrated (Bruun & Odgaard 1996).
Buddhism, which was abolished by the Russians during their rule, was also revived as an important religion and identity-shaper in Mongolia. In the 1920s, for example, it was estimated that one third of the male population was serving as lamas in the monasteries. The religion being abolished, as well as with the effects of modernization and industrialization in urban areas during the 1960s, the practice of Buddhism fell to an all time low. Today, local governments make an effort to rebuild the lost religious roots by restoring old temples, and opening new Buddhist schools. (Brunn & Odgaard 1996).
Social Groups
The imperial history of the Mongols under the Khan dynasty accounts for the scattered communities of the present Mongol population. Approximately 7.5 million Mongols live scattered over a vast area covering several states. 2.5 million live in the independent state of Mongolia, while 4.9 million live in Inner Mongolia under Chinese rule. Also, about 600,000 live in Russia. On the basis of geography and self-identity, the Mongols can be divided into three groups: the northern, eastern and the western.
Mongol dialects do not differ much from each other, as it is a rule not to do so incase Mongols of different groups need to communicate with each other. There are three main dialects are: Khalkha Mongolian, Oirat / Kalmyk, and Buryat. The main dialect spoken in Mongolia is Khalkha, and is used in everyday life. The Mongolian language has been naturally adapted to the nomadic life. It contains a large variety of terms of words for grasses, and vegetation. The language also has a variety of terms for domestic animals according to their age, sex, colour, and other special characteristics (Dashtseren 1997).
Most of the Mongolian population still follows the traditional nomadic lifestyle, raising cattle in the countryside, and moving from one pastureland to the next in an annual cycle. They live in felt gers, round canvas and felt houses that collapse easily when needed for travelling. Although fourty nine percent of Mongolians now live in urban centres, most spend their summers visiting kin in the countryside and learn a nomadic lifestyle (Sabloff 2001: 21).
Current Issues
While Mongolia is currently not involved in any international disputes, or conflicts, many of its issues are environmental, or related to the environment. Russian communist rule which encouraged industrialization and urbanization in some areas created negative effects on the environment. In particular, emissions from industrial factories in Ulaanbataar have caused the air to become highly polluted in the city. Also, because the nation in land-locked, there is a need for fresh water resources in some areas (Hillstrom 2003: 137). The increase in population since the 1920s from 600,000 to 2.5 million has created the need for more agricultural supply. As a result of this population increase, deforestation, overgrazing and the conversion of virgin land to commercial agricultural ones have occurred. Their national export is mostly raw materials, particularly metals, and since opening its country to the free market, mining activity has increased and consequently deteriorated the condition of the natural environment (Sneath, 2002).
Also, the nation is in the process of developing within a new market economy. The restructuring of the economy has caused widespread poverty in Mongolia. Issues surrounding poverty include unemployment, education, healthcare, and the creation on social policies (Griffin 1995: 3).
Economics
After breaking ties with Russia in the early 1990s, Mongolia began to work towards political and economic liberalization. Mongolia declared a policy known as the “open door” in order to strengthen trade and economic ties with Japan, the United States, and western Europe. Soon after adopting a new constitution, the democratic government of Mongolia also instituted privatization, financial reform, and trade liberalization (Kotkin & Elleman 1999).
The separation from the Soviets in 1991 was not easy. Russia was a main support for monetary funds in Mongolia during the communist era, and their absence was felt economically and socially (Tsoglzomaa, 1994: 43). Because of the lack of capital flow, and economic restructuring in the country from a centrally planned to a free and open market, the population felt its changes, especially in the employment sector. The liberalization of the economy meant that industries were no longer centralized in one area. These industries closed, and cutbacks to employment income were also made. Poverty levels rose accordingly, especially in the urban areas where the industrial factories once existed (Bumaa 2001: 59).
The Mongolian economy is still in the stages of transition. There has been a push to open their industries internationally, as mentioned above. Agriculture and livestock now provides Mongolia with one third of its GDP income, and mining is the largest earner of foreign exchange (it makes up half of the income in foreign exchange) (ADB 2000: 3). An increase in employment, however, was not a result of the new industries. While mining has not generated widespread employment, agriculture and livestock has failed to produce year-round employment. As a result, there has been an increase in non-formal economic activity in recent years, which provides temporary employment and income (ADB 2000).
Government
Mongolia practices a democratic multi-party government. The president is the head of state, and the prime minister is head of government. There is a single legislative chamber in parliament (State Great Hural). Following legislative elections, the leader of the majority party or majority coalition is usually elected prime minister by the parliament. The president is elected by popular vote for a four-year term. The major parties of the Mongolian government are Citizens' Will Party (also called Civil Will Party or Civil Courage Party), the Democratic Party or DP Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party, the Mongolian New Socialist Democratic Party and the Mongolian Republican Party. The Mongolian People’s Revolutionary Party is currently the ruling party.
Beneath the national level are key administrative subdivisions consisting of eighteen provinces, and of the three autonomous cities of Ulaanbaatar, Darhan, and Erdenet. On the next lower administrative level are counties, and town centers. At this basic level, government and economic activity are connected closely, so that the leadership of the county and those of the livestock and agricultural cooperatives operating within the counties often are often identical. (Enkhbat & Odgaard 1996).
Ten permanent committees assisted in specialized areas of government work: industry; environmental protection; construction; youth affairs; budgets and planning; transportation and communications; labor resources; agriculture; trade and services; and health, education, culture and scientific affairs.
Communication and Education
Mongolians are highly educated to the university level. It should be noted that Mongolian women compose the majority of university students, although there are still plenty of men who are also students. While the women attend university, many men leave school at the secondary level to pursue work, especially in labour (Altangerel 2001: 21).
The government continues to ensure universal access to education. Standards of education are high in Mongolia. Since the beginning of 1993, however, the Government’s program has intended to make cutbacks. The transformation of ten-year secondary schools into eight-year schools has occurred. They have also combined teachers’ positions and those of school administrative and service personnel; expanding private schools; limiting the school period in some areas to the warm season, thus saving money on electricity and heating expenses; starting the practice of cost sharing by parents for dormitories and kindergartens; and preparations to establish a system of funding vocational training through private savings, and loans and grants from businesses and organizations (IMF 1996: 50).
Communication after communism has increased greatly in Mongolia. The Government was nor prepared for an outburst of liberalized print media. The proliferation of print media occurred immediately in 1991. There have been approximately 550 newspapers for 2.5 million people since 1991. For political leaders in Mongolia, the issue on whether to reimpose media regulation less than seven years after they broke free of constraints on media freedom by the communists. Along with growing disappointment with free media, caused mainly by the growing print media industry's failure to display any ethical standards and responsible journalism, the Mongolian parliament is preparing to debate a draft media law that will bring some kind of state control back to the mass media (Lowe 2004).
Infrastructure
Mongolia’s roads are a main issue at the moment. It is the main method in connecting the rural with the urban. This means that the agricultural and livestock industries, often found in the rural areas, need to be linked to those who depend on the products in the urban areas. Furthermore, raw materials are processed in Ulaanbataar, in the few factories which still exist after the end of communism in the 1990s. As seen on the map (figure 1), there is one main road travelling horizontally, and two main roads that travel vertically. There is one major railway which travels on a north-south orientation (ADB 2004).
The Asian Development Bank has offered to finance the development of roads for better communication, and economic flow. According to the ADB, the improvement of road infrastructure will “provide more employment opportunities and generate additional incomes in poor areas thus contributing to poverty reduction” (ADB 2000: 11).
Conclusion
This paper examined the development of the state of Mongolia after 1990 when it separated from Soviet communism. I kept in mind the theme of development in the country while I observed its demographics, history, nationalism, current issues, economics, government, communication and education and finally, infrastructure. Mongolia is currently in the process of transition from a communist to a democratic way of life where we can start to see its identity, independent economy, government, and social services develop into strong bases of a strengthening nation. I believe that the quality of this paper would have been better if I understood Mongolian. I felt limited with the English information that I could collect, as many other publications were written in Mongolian.
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