Alongside this theory is that of the contrast effect. Robbins, 1997, states that this effect is how we perceive information from individuals in direct correlation to another. During an interview process one candidate may appear to be very outgoing and the interviewer may then, upon meeting the following interviewee, assess their personality in relation to the previous person. The danger with this is that the second candidate’s other attributes may be overlooked because the interviewer has essentially applied the halo effect.
When we meet someone we make judgments and form biased opinions about them based on what they look like, what they do, how they talk and what they say. Yet our “sensory system has limits” (Mullins, 2002, pp386), so when a situation arises that is ambiguous we look to the knowledge we already have for answers and “…attempt to place the person in to a complete environment” (Mullins, 2002, pp401). We make assumptions which go beyond the information available to us, based purely on characteristics such as race, age and occupation and thus, it is easy to form the wrong impression about people, especially as some structured situations allow for very little interpretation.
Once we have formed such impressions they are difficult to correct, even if we are indeed inaccurate. Many people are completely unaware that they make judgments and apply prejudices on an everyday basis, thus it is unlikely that they will ever be able to recognise when they have made an error. Furthermore, “…..many stereotypes have no foundation in fact” (Robbins, 1997, pp42). If a manager is aware of their own personal prejudices and likelihood to stereotype people into certain groups then their self-awareness should help them to avoid responding to stimuli is such ways. Being able to overcome stereotyping is essential for any organisation to maintain an effective equal opportunities policy. “We should be aware of the assumptions that are made throughout the perceptual process, below our conscious threshold”. (Mullins, 2002, pp387)
Human nature dictates that we see what we want to see; once an impression has been formed we tend to only look for, or take on board, factors that support our initial viewpoints and hence reinforce our biases, this is the Self-fulfilling Prophecy theory of perception. We want to make things fit in with our conceptions and will therefore alter our perception to do this. If a manager believes that one of their staff is not performing their duties properly then they will tend to only look for actions that reaffirm their original view. Likewise if a new employee performs their first task well the manager may be oblivious to future less favourable performances. These attitudes will remain in effect so long as conflicting knowledge does nothing to counteract them. This theory is connected to the Pollyanna Principle, “….pleasant stimuli will be processed more quickly and remembered more precisely than unpleasant stimuli” (Mullins, 2002, pp390). With the knowledge of this possibility a manager can endeavour to be more objective and begin to recognise other qualities in a person.
“We don’t see things as they are, we see them as we are”
(Anaïs Nin)
Projection or the Assumed Similarity Affect is the assignment of one’s own personal attributes, good or bad, on to another (Schermerhorn et al, 2000, p92). A manager may believe that their employees have the same needs or wants as them, but in reality the manager’s own high ambition and dedication to tasks may not be matched by their employees or colleagues. The manager needs to be aware of this or else they may tend to assume that the worker is disinterested in their career or the project and hence form negative views about them. The manager and understand that everyone has different priorities and there need not be a negative outcome from such juxtaposition in values. Here the case for improved communication, empathy and acceptance is highlighted. If we cannot understand the world from another person’s point of view, we cannot effectively deal with their behaviour.
Attribution Theory is when we attempt to identify causal factors for a person’s behaviour, internal or external. Internal factors, such as personality, motives and past experiences assume that the individual is in control of their behaviour and subsequently the results of their behaviour. External factors, such as environment, setting and context, assume that the individual is being controlled by the situation they are in. (Robbins, 1994, pp40). A fundamental attribution error is The Actor-Observer Effect “…..the tendency to attribute our own behaviour to external causes and the behaviour of others to internal causes.” (). The Self-Serving Bias Effect explains how when we do something well we often attribute the behaviour to internal factors, yet if we fail at something we often attribute it to external factors. Conversely when making assumptions about someone else’s behaviour we tend to reverse this process and attribute their good behaviour to external causes and their negative actions to internal factors. ()
Although attribution is commonplace in every day life it is especially important within organisation as it can lead to inaccurate. A manager may have a member of staff who is consistently late and rather than assuming the trains are late every day, leads the manager to presume the person in question is lazy. Attribution can be easily avoided with a little research into the actual causal factors and by recognising a behavioural tendancy in oneself and others.
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator theory distinguishes between two types of perceivers, the ‘sensing types’ who are realistic and practical, accepting information on face value and the ‘intuitive types’ who tend to look beyond the information immediately presented to them and attempt to look at other possibilities or ways of doing things (Mullins, 2002, pp389). Myers and Briggs emphasise that both types are equally important and this is apparent in many smoothly operating organisations and relationships. There are certainly benefits for managers to use a combination of these skills. Having an intuitive sense and always looking beyond immediately apparent perceptions is a great skill and successful managers will do well to apply this method when dealing with many situations. It must be acknowledged, however, that it is also important for managers to sometimes just act in how they perceive to be the appropriate manner.
Although “we communicate best through language, which is able to transmit complex, subtle ideas” (People Management, 25 Mar 1999), awareness of body language, or non-verbal messages, plays an important factor in understanding psychological knowledge of personal and social perception;
“We can consciously send and receive messages non-verbally; we often “leak” the truth non-verbally about our emotional state; and we can also act on messages that are neither sent nor received in conscious awareness – for example, responding to dilated pupils.”
(People Management, 25 Mar 1999).
Perceptions of body language have been studied for many years and knowledge of some interpretations are now commonplace, for example, a person tapping their fingers may be irritated (Humphries, 1995, pp27). For a comprehensive breakdown of body language and how it can be perceived see Appendix A.
A good manager can read body language and interpret it correctly, yet “some people seem to be naturally body-language-illiterate, even though all the signs are there to read.” (People Management, 07 Mar 2002). An extensive knowledge of decoding body language will obviously enhance a manager’s abilities and thus contribute to their success. However, we may also find a gender difference in the success of interpreting body language: “Women are far better at reading the signals than men – the “sniffer dogs” of body language” (People Management, 07 Mar 2002)
It must be acknowledged though, that:
“…….it is still too easy to read too much into non-verbal cues. When people fold or unfold their arms it may be because they are cold, or the armrests are occupied, or the position is comfortable. It does not necessarily mean that they are defensive, pensive, in need of physical reassurance or lacking in confidence.”
(People Management, 25 Mar 1999).
A manager will do well to bear this in mind when attempting to analyse another’s body language as they make a risk of putting too great an emphasis on the theory.
As “Our interpretations of another’s nonverbal messages can influence our social behaviour with respect to that person.” () a manager must always consider this when trying to interpret an employee’s body language. Body language can often be read more effectively in a structured situation such as an interview or disciplinary meeting. It is also important to remember that the person being studied may have comprehensive knowledge of body language and therefore their non-verbal messages may be atypical.
”Non-verbal communication is also highly important in assessing interpersonal relationships.” (People Management, 07 Mar 2002). Here a manager can gain more in-depth knowledge of others by seeing how they fit into groups and networks within an organisation. This says a lot about people and their personalities as ‘groupness’ is a significant and natural instinct of human behaviour. A manager may be able to select future leaders by observing such interaction or identify those who are easily influenced by others.
An effective manager will have knowledge of how their workforce understands them. It is important to realise that they may have good perception and can read different meanings into your behaviour. Equally it may be the case that the manager needs to be explicit with what they say or do so that the respondent understands the exact and true meanings behind the communication should they have poor personal perception.
The emphasis on advanced knowledge of perception is ever greater in today’s organisation as "The rise of the electronically networked office, where colleagues connect largely through email…..personal connections and relationships are often superficial and distant.” (People Management, 29 Oct 1998). It is now possible to go to work and not meet or even speak to another person, hence, correct perception of emails and other written communication is imperative. Some managers are more removed from their staff than they have ever been before, yet they must endeavour not to neglect face to face communication or they risk losing perceptions skills.
In conclusion it can be observed that a high awareness of the theories, methods and psychological processes behind perception has an enormous benefit to those who work in management roles. It is essential for a manager to gain an understanding of the initial stages of perception such as the Halo and Contrast Effects as well as stereotyping and also to pass this on to their staff. This is possibly the only way that an organisation can ensure elimination of prejudice, born out of ignorance or arrogance. The self-fulfilling prophecy and assumed similariy theory are very personal theories and are hard for a manager to identify in themselves, least of all in others. Knowledge, perhaps through training, of such concepts will empower the manager to avoid misjudgments and inaccurate assumptions.
Finally it is important to remember that whatever our knowledge of perception and its numerous theories is, “we are only a small part of this process”, perception is essentially divergent and continuous. To change one’s fundamental perceptions entirely is an extremely difficult task, yet managers should strive to obtain knowledge of perception, so as to minimise the risk of distortions within organisations and individual behaviour.
Appendix A
Body Language and What it Means
Source: Adrian Furnham, Gesture Politics, People Management, 25 Mar 1999
Bibliography
-
Conger, Jay, ‘Learner-leaders’, pp35, People Management, 29 Oct 1998 (CIPD)
-
Furnham, Adrian, ‘Gesture Politics, pp50, People Management, 25 Mar 1999 (CIPD)
-
Humphries, John, How to Counsel People at Work, (How to Books Ltd, Plymouth, 1995)
-
Mullins, Laurie J, Management and Organisational Behaviour, (Pearson Education, 2002)
-
Robbins, Stephen R. Essentials of Organizational Behavior (Prentice Hall, 1997)
-
Schermerhorn, John, Hunt, James and Osborn, Richard, Organizational Behavior, (John Wiley & Sons Inc., USA, 2000)
-
Sigman, Aric, ‘Body of Evidence’, pp48, People Management, 07 Mar 2002 (CIPD)
-
Stephenson, Karen, ‘Of Human Bonding’, People Management, 29 Oct 1998 (CIPD)
-
, Auburn University, Alabama, USA.
-
, The Right Perception (C & K Management Limited, 2002)
