Investigating intelligence testing.

Intelligence is the entire concept surrounding IQ tests. IQ tests aim to measure an individuals intelligence, however there are factors which have to be taken into consideration. Individuals are comprised of genotypes and phenotypes. Genotype is an individuals genetic potential, whereas phenotype represents his/her observable abilities. There is an important distinction between genotype and phenotype. When intelligence tests are carried out only an individual's phenotype can be taken into account, as genotype cannot be measured.

One of the main issues regarding intelligence is the importance of heredity and environment in determine intelligence. Psychologists such as Lewis M. Terman and Sir Cyril Burt argue that intelligence is determined entirely by heredity whereas psychologists such as Wilfred Lippman, Robert J. Sternberg and Leon J. Kamin argue that intelligence is determined by the individual's environment. There are psychologists who believe that both heredity and environmental factors are involved in the development of individual intelligence, Donald Hebb is one such psychologist. Heredity intelligence is the assumption that one is born with knowledge that has been passed down through genetics. It is believed that the closer the genetic relationship between two individuals, the greater the similarity in IQ. Burt found that identical twins reared apart had an IQ that was closer together than the IQ of non-identical twins. Sir Cyril Burt carried out a study of twins. He has however, been accused of fabricating his data in order to compliment his work, as stated (www.indiana.edu.html). These findings of fabricating came from Leon J. Kamin. Kamin was an expert statistician and became skeptical about Burt's data and findings. Sir Cyril Burt was however a prominent figure, he was a strong advocate of intelligence testing and his ideas fitted in with Britain at the time as elitism ruled. Streaming was used in schooling systems and at the age of eleven, children underwent intelligence tests. The top 15-20 per cent went to grammar schools with good teaching facilities and prospects of university. The other children attended secondary schools with less academic reputations. The streaming system allowed for middle class children with rich learning environments to get ahead, this therefore separated the classes and reinforced the elitist system of power.

Lippman highlighted how intelliegence testing leads to social problems through the classifications and labelling of individuals. Psychologists such as Wilfred Lippman and Robert J. Sternberg believed in environmental factors as shaping individuals intellectual abilities. Environmental factors being standard and quality of schooling, those individuals who are surrounded by rich learning environments obviously have advantages over those individuals who are surrounded by less than stimulating learning environments.

Robert J. Sternberg developed a Triachic Theory. Eysenck, M (Pg 424) describes how Sternberg was concerned with the way in which the different components of intelligence combined and worked together. He focused on how individuals used their intelligence rather than on how much intelligence they had. The Triachic Theory consists of three dimensions, experiential, contextual and coponential. Experiential Subtheory is the ability to deal with new situations and problems. Contextual Subtheory is the ability to use one's intelligence to solve problems. Conponential Subtheory is the ability to process information. Sternberg believes that intelligence involves all three subtheories. Sternberg's theory combines environment with internal processes in order for effective intelligence. Sternberg focused on intelligence as being made up of three components, however Howard Gardner (1983) introduced his theory of multiple intelligence. Eysenck, M (Pg 424) describes how Gardner identified seven components of intelligence. He argued that these components were all distinct from each other and that each individual has some level of each of the seven intelligences. The seven intelligence are as follows; spatial intelligence, musical intelligence, linguistic intelligence, logical-mathematical intelligence, interpersonal intelligence, intrapersonal intelligence and bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence. When defining intelligence, Gardner argues that it is inadequate to solely rely on standard intelligence tests. Gardner (1993) carried out a study of creativity, as shown by Eysenck, M (Pg 424) whereby he examined seven individuals from the twentieth century, all had great ability in one of the seven intelligences. Gardner found that all of his subjects belonged to 'well-off' families with expectations of high levels of achievement. Gardners study highlighted many forms of ability and intelligence, however it assumes each intelligence is independent of each other.

Another theory of intelligence comes from James McKeen Cattell (www.maxpages.com). Cattell argued that there are two froms of intelligence, crystallised intelligence and fluid intelligence. Crystallised intelligence being the ability to bring previously acquired, culturally defined problem-solving skills to solve current problems. Fluid intelligence being the ability to develop techniques for problem solving that are new and unsual. According to Cattell crystallised and fluid intelligence develops over an individual's lifetime, crystallised intelligence however, reaches its peak later in life. Charles Spearman is another psychologist with a theory of intelligence. Spearman argued, Eysenck, M (Pg 421), that intelliegence is based on one factor, general intelligence, "g". Spearman believed however, that there are specific abilities, "s", which require a certain degree of the "g" factor. According to Spearman, intelligence tests should measure intelligence without focusing on special abilities. Charles Spearman influenced Philip E. Vernon. Vernon recognised the importance of both genetic and environmental factors. Vernon devised a hierarchical group factor theory for intelligence that bridged the Spearman's two-factor theory and Thurstone's multiple-factor theory.

Psychometric tests are useful, so long as their limitations are taken into account. The US the guidelines for testing (1978), (www.garysturt.free-online.co.uk) highlighted that test results 'should be interpreted as an estimate of performance under a given set of circumstances. They should not be interpreted as some absolute characteristic'. Lippman believes that intelligence testing has been used to enforce political and social prejudices. Intelligence tests were used to keep Jews out of America, as they were 'intellectually inferior', that they would pollute the racial mix. Statements as above have been devised from misinterpreted intelligence tests, unfair and unreliable tests. These have been used to aid bias judgements of individuals for the past century. In the First World War intelligence tests which were undertaken by individuals were unfair and poorly coordinated. Tests were rushed, many of the men did not know or understand the purpose of the tests, this resulted in 'experts' claiming that the average intelligence of white American adults was that of a thirteen-year-old. Lippman (New Republic 32) stated that these results were misinterpreted and were based on the tiny sample of Californian's that Terman used in order to set his norm value in the designing of the Stanford Binet Test. Indeed when discussing intelligence, Lippman has very definite views against it. Lippman highlights the dangers of labelling an individual from one single test. Lippman believes that intelligence tests reflect nothing of the individuals intellectual capacity and to label or classify is absurd, Lippman (Lippman, New Republic 32) states;

" It would be a crazy thing to do, because there is nothing in these tests to warrant judgement of this kind."

Intelligence testing is a wide area of controversy, with sensitive implications, as already seen it has been used for justifying prejudices, such as Jews not being allowed into America. Intelligence tests have been used in order to justify racial views. Indeed intelligence tests and their results have been abused in the past and present day situations. Intelligence tests can only be a means of classifying individuals, groups and cultures, intelligence should not, however be a measure of intelligence. As mentioned, individuals are made up of genotypes and phenotypes. Thus, it is only an individual's observable skills, i.e. phenotype that can be measured. If it is only possible to measure an individual's phenotype, a holistic view cannot be taken, therefore it would be foolish to assume and categorise individuals. This therefore would seem to suggest that intelligence testing and its results, in accordance with Wilfred Lippman should be sunk.