Piaget suggested that three processes were needed for children to develop (see figure 1), “as they add more complex schemes to their thinking” (Tassoni & Hucker, 2000). He also suggested there were four stages of cognitive development (see figure 2) and believed that children must go through one stage in order to progress to the next.
The child I observed was aged 4 and according to Piaget's theory, at pre-operational stage. Children of this age have developed language, memory and imaginative play skills and are able to relate experiences using mental imagery.
There are three key concepts to Piaget’s theory, one of which was conservation. Piaget argued that children in the pre-operational stage are unable to think logically or understand mass, quantity and number.
The child I observed knew that two balls of play dough had the same amount of dough, but when one was shaped into a pancake, thought this had more dough as it appeared larger in diameter. This would constitute the mass aspect of conservation. Quantity was assessed by pouring equal amounts of water into different sized containers with the same capacity. The child thought that one contained more than the other due to it being a taller, thinner container. The child was also asked to share a bag of sweets into two equal quantities for herself and her brother to assess the number aspect. She shared them equally but after studying the piles, swapped some smaller sweets from one pile for larger ones so that she had more.
Piaget’s other concepts were that children of this age are ego-centric and not able to understand or take account of other peoples point of view , and centration is where they only see one feature, ignoring the wider reality.
Attachment theory is the study of human relationships which constitute an attachment or bond between a child and carer. This is universal and sets the foundations for psychological well-being. It is believed that children need safe, stable and reliable relationships, to explore and receive comfort, encouragement and guidance.
A number of theorists have studied attachment. Mary Ainsworth carried out her Strange Situation study during the 1970’s (Ainsworth, 1978). Researchers observed children aged 12 to 18 months who were playing with toys in a room with their carer. A stranger then entered the room and the carer momentarily left, leaving the child alone with the stranger. During this study, researchers identified three different patterns of attachment;
Secure Attachment: child will play happily alone or with a stranger if the carer is present. The child will become upset if the carer leaves the room but will calm after seeking comfort and reassurance from the carer on their return.
Avoidant Attachment: child is unlikely to become distressed at the carer leaving the room and would be indiscriminate in seeking comfort or reassurance from their carer or stranger should they become distressed. The child would avoid eye contact with the carer when they returned to the room and is likely to resume play.
Resistant Attachment: child is anxious even when carer is near. They will become very distressed at the carer leaving the room and will seek, but resist comfort and reassurance from the carer on their return. They often cry angrily, and are reluctant to return to play.
Theorists have recognized there are different causes to these patterns of attachment, and how carer's react or respond to a child can have a great impact. A child whose carer is sensitive and responds to their needs, is likely to form a secure attachment, whereas a child who receives no or negative responses, is likely to form an avoidant or resistant attachment. John Bowlby states “the prolonged deprivation of a young child of maternal care may have grave and far reaching effects on his character and so on the whole future of his life” (Fry and Ainsworth, 1965), and it is likely that as an adult, they will find it difficult to secure meaningful and sustainable relationships.
Theorists also suggest that a child should be responsive towards its carer to enable the carer to be reactive, and that cultural influence may also have an impact. In some cultures, children are raised by a number of carer’s and form multiple attachments.
The child that I observed was in foster care and separated from her mother. The carer informed me that the child was initially frightened when moved and experienced distress, anger and confusion. The child had an avoidant attachment to her mother, but has begun to build a secure and trusting relationship with the carer indicating that despite her earlier life experiences, she is able to form positive attachments.
PART C
Mary Sheridan developed and created the Sheridan Scale (SS) using a chart rather than theory, over a number of years. The main strength of using this is that it gives an indication of developmental milestones that children are expected to achieve by a certain age.
This measures mostly biological, but also social progress (vision and fine movements, posture and large movements, hearing and speech, and social behaviour and play) and is categorised into ages from one month to five years (Sheridan 1991).
The simplicity of the SS (see appendices 2 to 4) means that an assessment need not take place in a clinical environment with specialist tools or play equipment, and that parent or carer input, is also taken into consideration. By using a series of tick boxes, it can detect “the earliest signs of physical disability, mental retardation, personality disorder and social maladjustment” (Sheridan, 1991), and can highlight if further assessment or intervention is needed as it is thought that the earlier a disability is identified, the better progress a child can make.
The Assessment Framework Triangle (AFT) involves a much more detailed assessment and it could be argued that it has more strengths than the SS. The Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families (2000), suggests that the AFT safeguards and promotes the welfare of children. This can be used with children of all ages and considers “three inter-related or domains” (a child’s developmental needs, the family and environmental factors, and parenting capacity) which cover twenty specific areas to assess a child’s development (see appendix 6). Using the AFT also involves engaging with a child and obtaining information from parents or carer’s, but in addition, takes into account any disabilities, impairments and discriminatory issues. Furthermore, there is additional practice guidance for assessing disabled and black children to better meet their needs, and ensure anti discriminatory practice is applied (DoH, 2000).
However, there are a number of factors that may impede a child’s development. The SS does not consider children’s needs, parenting capacity, or family and environmental factors. Nor does it take into account a child’s heritage, culture, background, life experiences, disabilities, learning difficulties or impairments. The AFT can be used to assess children of all ages, but older children may refuse to participate in this.
For both assessment, there may be issues around confidentiality if the parent or carer gives information supplied by other professionals, and the practitioner should also be aware that information provided by the parent or carer should be treated with caution, particularly if considering taking a child into care. These assessments also prevent practitioners from observing how parents/carer’s/or absent parents interact with their child in ordinary settings.
Practitioners should always consider ethics and values in social work and not make assumptions based on their personal values. Assessing a child who is anxious, excitable, hungry or tired for example may give very different results and be assessed incorrectly. Careful consideration should be given to assessment results and if they indicate that a child is developing as expected, below or above average, this does not necessarily mean that a child is not at risk.
PART D
On completion of this assignment, I feel that I am developing a better understanding of childhood psychological development and the factors that may have an impact on this. I have learnt from taught sessions, shared experiences, group discussions and reading, the importance of researching different theorist’s and considering theories from different perspectives, and that you need good knowledge and experience of working with children.
Using the Sheridan Scale proved beneficial in that it was simplistic and identified certain milestones that a child is expected to achieve by a certain age. The Assessment framework Triangle taught me that there are so many other factors to consider, which may impede on a child’s development.
Through observing the child and with carer involvement, using both of these tools was much more effective than I imagined, and provided detailed information that I may not otherwise have obtained.
This assignment has also helped me to reflect on previous work practice and how I could have used a different approach when trying to obtain information by using tools, and better communication and observational skills.
Ethics and values in social work should always be predominant when in contact with service users, and when considering other factors that may affect childhood psychological development, the use of anti-discriminatory practice is paramount.
APPENDIX 1
INFORMED CONSENT FORM
My name is …XXXXXXXXXX……………………………….
I am a social work student and I am doing a Child observation for my psychology assignment for the SOAP module. I will be using part of the assessment framework and the Sheridan scale to help me to understand child development.
The lecturer’s contact details are:
Social Work,
Hawthorn Building,
De Montfort University
The Gateway
Leicester
LE1 9BH
0116 XXXXXX (XXXXXXXXX)
My phone number is:……XXXXXXXXXX………………………………………………………
Thank you for agreeing to let me observe your child. Before we start I’d like to emphasise that:
- Your child’s participation is entirely voluntary
- Your child is free to refuse to answer any question
- Your child is free to withdraw at any time
I am happy to discuss any observation I make with you and to include your comments in my project. All details about you and your child will be anonymised so that your privacy is protected. My observation will be confidential and read only by tutors at the university.
Please sign this form to show that I have read the contents to you.
_______________________________________________(signed and dated)
_________________________________________________ (printed)
APPENDIX 2
Sheridan Chart illustrating the developmental progress
of young children aged 3 years
Key to table:
* = notes on specific area for child (see end of table)
S = direct observation of child C = carer information
APPENDIX 3
Sheridan Chart illustrating the developmental progress
of young children aged 4 years
Key to table:
* = notes on specific area for child (see end of table)
S = direct observation of child C = carer information
✴ At time of observation, child not wearing glasses – not observed
APPENDIX 4
Sheridan Chart illustrating the developmental progress
of young children aged 5 years
Key to table:
* = notes on specific area for child (see end of table)
S = direct observation of child C = carer information
✴ Child not asked for home address as she is a looked after child who may have become confused or distressed
APPENDIX 5
Sheridan Chart observation summary for ages 3 to 5 years
Key to table:
A = If the child responds to a quarter or more of the testing for the next older year, their performance may be assessed as above average
B = If the child responds to three quarters of the testing for their age, their performance may be assessed as average
C = If the child responds to half of the testing for their age, and mostly for the next younger year, their performance may be assessed as below average
APPENDIX 6
Using the Assessment Framework to identify a child’s developmental needs
APPENDIX 7
REFERENCES
Department of Health, Department for Education and Employment and Home Office (2000), Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families. London: The Stationery Office Ltd., p.17
DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH (1988), Reports on Public Health and Medical Subjects No 102. HMSO 1960, revised 1975. In Department of Health (1988) Protecting Children, A Guide for Social Workers undertaking a Comprehensive Assessment. London: HMSO, pp-88-93.
Department for Education and Skills (2003) Every Child Matters, London: Crown Copywrite 2003.
TASSONI, P and HUCKER, K (2000) Planning Play and the Early Years. Oxford: Heinemann
AINSWORTH et al (1978). Patterns of Attachment. NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
FRY, M and AINSWORTH, M (eds) – (1965), Child Care and the Growth of Love. Second Edition, Middlesex: Penguin Books Ltd. P53
SHERIDAN, M (1991), From Birth to Five Years. Windsor: NFER-Nelson
Department of Health, Department for Education and Employment and Home Office (2000), Assessing Children in Need and their Families: Practice Guidance, London: The Stationery Office Ltd.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
FOLEY, P et al (eds) – (2001), Children in Society. The Open University, London: Palgrave
ADAMS, R et al (eds) – (2002) Social Work Themes, Issues and Critical Debates. The Open University, London: Palgrave
STAR, A (2001), Freud, A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press
Development processes
- Assimilation – meaning to absorb and understand new information
- Accommodation – adjusting or relating new information to what has already been learnt
- Equilibration – is when assimilation and accommodation are balanced in association with each other
Figure 1
Piaget’s cognitive stages of development
- Sensori-motor - birth to 2 years
- Pre-operational - 2 to 7 years
- Concrete operational - 7 to 11 years
- Formal operational - 11 to adulthood
Figure 2