Hidden Poverty
Within the definitions of absolute poverty, relative poverty, and multiple deprivation, the distinction between men, women, and children, is at best blurred, or even ignored. This hides the fact that poverty can be hidden within a family unit, a society, or a culture. According to OPPENHEIM (CPAG) research has shown that even where you have a high-income family, women and children still live in a state of poverty because of an unequal distribution of that income (8). Another form of hidden poverty is people entitled to claim benefits, who for one reason or another, fail to do so.
Possible solutions
Poverty is brought about by inequality, and although it may not eradicate poverty, tackling inequality will go some way to reducing it. Poverty strikes hardest at the most disadvantaged within society; the homeless, the elderly, the sick and infirm, the unemployed, groups or people from ethnic minorities, and people with disabilities. Areas in which poverty could be tackled are:
- A reduction or the removal of VAT
- A re-introduction of a graduated tax system
- Benefits and pensions linked to average earnings, not inflation
- Increase direct taxation and ring fencing for specific spending.
- Increased employment - equals more people paying tax and less drawing benefits
And there are many more.
Marxists theory says capitalism is inherently unfair; and a more just and equal society will only come from revolution. Marxists see poverty stemming from the two-class system of capitalism. Those who have the means of production will always have greater access to wealth, power and influence. They will always exploit the worker. It is in the employer’s best interest to have a large reserve of poor people. (9)
Interactionists see poverty as a result of the inadequacy and failure of the individual to take advantage of the opportunities available. There is a belief that there exists a ‘culture of poverty’. Which is being generated by the cultural attitudes and life-styles of the poor. They argue that it is becoming ‘socially acceptable’ to live off the state.
Others still, would argue that poverty is consequence of government social policy, and this may hold credence when you consider some of the policies implemented by the Thatcher government of the 70’s and 80’s.
Needs and Social Needs
Research into poverty and other social problems identifies areas of different types of need. There are many theories that try and classify these needs. McDougall (1932) defines needs as drives, and Morgan (1943) even goes as far as drawing a distinction between ‘primary drives’ and ‘secondary drives’. He sees primary drives as satisfying the basic needs of survival, and secondary drives as satisfying our ‘learned’ or ‘social’ needs.
Needs = Primary Drives = Physiological
Social Needs = Secondary Drives = Psychological (10)
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs puts needs into two orders; ‘lower order needs’ and ‘higher order needs’. Lower order needs are seen, as basic human needs that are required to sustain life. Higher order needs are seen, as more highly evolved needs required for developing full potential (11). Followers of Maslow believe that for the higher (social) needs to be met; you must first satisfy the lower (basic) needs. However, supporters of Carl Rogers would state that higher order needs are fundamental needs to human beings, and not simply the outcome of learned associations.
The above theories give a clear distinction between ‘need’ and ‘social need’. These theories whilst relevant to the needs of the individual, fail to address the needs of the collective.
Take budgetary needs for an example. All governments need to balance the budget. To decide how much to spend on certain items, or how much we can afford to give away as foreign aid. Why do we give away foreign aid when we have areas of poverty that need to be addressed at home? What benefits will giving this foreign aid bring to our society? The benefits will be increased overseas trade, increased exports and decreased imports. This in turn will boost the manufacturing industries, creating new or more jobs. This means more people paying tax, less people taking benefits. This boosts the economy, which will free funds for other projects, or to decrease our own national debt. This is a societal or ‘social’ need.
Social Exclusion
Social exclusion is the process whereby individuals, or groups, within societies or cultures, are denied access to some of the benefits of that society or culture, brought about by the breakdown or failure of the systems by which that society or culture operate.
The Prime Minister describes social exclusion as:
‘A short hand label for what can happen when individuals or areas suffer from a combination of linked problems such as unemployment, poor skill, low incomes, poor housing, high crime environments, bad health and family breakdown.’ (12)
The root of social exclusion is poverty, and the deprivation that impoverishment causes. We must not as workers allow ourselves to forget this simple tenet. Some individuals or governments may see social exclusion as a more appropriate term than poverty, because it hides the reality of poverty. It is a more ‘acceptable’ label. The process (life long effects) of social exclusion can be seen at each stage of development. Those who suffer deprivation in the early years often under achieve. Long term unemployment during adulthood, may lead to poverty in old age, which in itself may lead to social exclusion at a time when we need to be included the most.
People or groups with certain characteristics experience social exclusion more frequently than others do.
Tony Blair is quoted in ‘From Poverty to Social Justice’ Goodlad. R.
‘Those who do not have the means, material and otherwise, to participate in social, economic, political and cultural life.’ (13)
Characteristics most likely to increase the chance of social exclusion are ethnicity, sexuality, learning difficulties, physical impairment and religion. A workers responsibility is to enable these individuals or groups to reduce their level of exclusion. They are often beset, to varying degrees, by domestic violence, alcohol and or drug abuse, poor housing, physical and or sexual abuse, loneliness, unemployment, and disabilities, oppression, and the list goes on.
The presence of the above characteristics is significant, but more important, is the effect that they have on the quality of life or service received by those who have them. We as workers must ensure to the best of our ability, that we challenge the whole gamut of the physical, economic, social, and attitudinal barriers that may impede our clients’ access to rights, and services. Social exclusion denies people choice, and when people are denied choice, they see no way out of their predicament. We, as social workers must offer clients the opportunity of choice, the chance to get off the slow pervasive downward spiral, of social exclusion.
Goodlad. R. Refers to social exclusion being generally accepted as the breakdown or failure of the building blocks of society, the democratic and legal system, the labour market, the welfare system and the community system. To combat social exclusion and bring about social inclusion, we need to restore these systems (14).
Oppression
Oppression can be defined as a situation where an individual, group, society, culture or state, have power, be it economic, military or political; and exercise that power to disadvantage, and or subjugate those who do not. Oppression means control. It focuses directly on the power relationship that gives an entity the power to discriminate against another.
Women are one of the major sufferers of oppression within the UK. The work of Ramazanoglu (see Denney, D 1989) argues that:
‘This oppression can be seen in terms of the various ways in which men have been seen to dominate women, and in which structural arrangements have been seen to favour men over women’ (15)
Ethnic minorities are another group who are oppressed, both on an individual and societal level. With the legislation currently in place, this oppression is often very subtle and invasive. In relation to social work, we may tell a client that what is being done is in their best interests, when in fact it may well benefit the worker, the service provider or the policy administrator more.
To counter this oppression requires social workers to acknowledge their own personal racism, and to deal with it. Bandana Ahmad goes so far as to say:
‘British society is saturated in oppression. They are based upon race, class, gender, age, disability and sexual orientation. For social workers, it is often an easier option to focus on the symptoms of oppression than on causes of oppression’ (16)
Age and disability are other mediums for oppressive practice. ‘Your too young for that’. ‘Your to old to do this’. ‘You cannot possibly manage that in your condition’. The first verse of this poem by a young American teenager, is poignant.
Oppression of Society
‘Oppressed by pointless morals
Overpowered by society’s rule
I’m tired of my thoughts being worthless
Just because I’m different I’m not a fool. (17)
As a social worker, I will need to recognise that I work in a multi-cultural and multi-racial society. I will need to be aware of the need for ethnically sensitive practice, and to challenge racism on an individual, and institutional level. I must be prepared to challenge other forms of discriminations based on gender, religion, sexual preferences and many more. I need to be aware that my own values may conflict with my clients, or my employer’s policies. I must be prepared to put my values to one side in order to give my clients an equal level of service, no matter what their personal circumstances are. I must operate on a ‘needs led’ not ‘deeds led’ basis. As workers, we operate from a very ‘unequal power base’ and we must be careful to exercise this power appropriately. We must be non judgemental, and give respect to our service users. I must remember that I may be perceived as the representative of the very authority that my clients are, afraid of, in conflict with, or of all that they see as oppressive.
Social Policy
Social policy can and should be a creative way to address inequality, but it can only address social factors, such as poor housing, unemployment, poor environment etc. What is much harder to address is ‘societal attitudes.’ How do you change the views of a racist, or a homophobe? Not easy, but it is integral to the success of social inclusion.
Social policy is the government’s strategy for dealing with social problems highlighted by research in the welfare arena. Lawson and Goddard (1999) state that:
‘Social policy is usually associated with the legislative action of the state, in the area of the welfare state.’ (18)
We use legislative action, or laws, to administer policies. These laws are laid down in ‘Acts’ of Parliament. Various Acts have influenced how welfare and social needs have been catered for down the centuries, from the Poor Law Act 1572 to the Local Government Act 1929, and on to the present day New Deal Initiatives.
Impact
The one factor common to all Acts is that they impact, for better or worse, on individuals and on society. In some cases this impact can be very profound. Take for instance the Child Support Act 1993. This Act had a devastating effect on families. Research shows low-income lone mothers and children suffered adverse effects because of this Act. (19) It also discovered that many lone parent families suffered distress after the CSA became involved. This distress was caused by reassessment after partners had already agreed arrangements. Reassessment saw their benefits lessened £ for £ against maintenance received. (20)
Private Welfare Insurance – v – Social Security, had a damaging effect on income. Case studies highlight the following areas
- Insurance against care costs in old age.
- Income replacement during long-term sickness or disability.
-
Cover for mortgage payments if earnings are interrupted (21).
The change from social security to private insurance raised the cost significantly for these services. In some cases six times higher. A 45-year-old married man on a low income may pay £900 per year for mortgage protection, and health insurance. Much more than he would pay with a one penny in the pound tax hike. (22)
Social workers must be aware (as must the government) of the debilitating effect social exclusion has on individuals’s sense of themselves, low self-esteem, lack of confidence, low motivation, fear of change. This is often expressed in avoidance, non-compliance, and or aggression. We have to recognise that these are strategies people have developed in order to survive the effects of deprivation and social exclusion.
Current Initiatives
The present Government is promoting the cause of social Inclusion with some far reaching initiatives.
- National Minimum Wage
- Working Families Tax credit
- Increased Child Benefit
- New Deal for Lone Parents
- New Deal for 18 – 24 year olds
- New Deal for the Long Term Unemployed
-
New Community Schools (23).
These initiatives, will help educate those suffering social exclusion, and enable them to become included. John Sewel, the Minister for social inclusion in Scotland says
‘The problems associated with social exclusion are deep-rooted and complex. Complex problems require thoughtful solutions: single-programme approaches are unlikely to be successful.’ (24)
Conclusion
To cover such a vast topic within the constraints of the criteria has been difficult. Some areas may seem a little lean on ‘substance’, and I apologise for this, but I found it necessary to prioritise in order to cover the main points of the assignment. I have defined and discussed poverty and given some possible solutions that could be introduced to ease the situation. I have stated how research identifies need, and I have looked at oppression and the effects of social policy on society. I hope that through the use of ‘quotes’ and my own personal comments, I have shown some absorption of knowledge through research and reading, and in doing so have become more aware of how they will affect my practice as a social worker.
References:
-
HARVEY, Lee. & MacDONALD, Morag., (1993). Doing Sociology: A Practical Introduction. Basingstoke: MacMillan. Page 106
-
TOWNSEND, Peter., (1979). Poverty in the United Kingdom. Middlesex: Penguin, Harmondsworth. Pages 59, 60, & 239
- TOWNSEND, P., (as above) Page 33
-
ROWNTREE, J., ‘Poverty and Social Exclusion in Britain.’ .
(26 Oct 2001)
-
HARALAMBOS, Michael, & HOLBORN, Martin,. (1991). Sociology: Themes and Perspectives. 3rd ed. London: Collins. Page193
- HARALAMBOS, M. (as above) Page199.
- TOWNSEND, P.,, (as above) Page 50
-
OPPENHEIM, Carey., (1988). What is Poverty CPAG Publication. Page 2 & 3
- HARALAMBOS, M. (as above) Page 213
-
HAYES, Nicky., (1994). Foundation of Psychology: An Introductory Text. London: Routledge. Page 423
- HAYES, N., (as above) Page 423 &424
-
DSS PUBLICATIONS, ‘Opportunity for all – Tackling Poverty and Social Exclusion.’ . (19 Oct 2001)
-
GOODLAD, Robina., ‘Working Together.’ ‘From Poverty to Social Justice.’ Page 5. . (3 Nov 2001)
-
GOODLAD, Robina., (as above) Page 6.
-
DENNEY, D., (1998). Social Policy and Social Work. Oxford: Clarendon. Page 21
-
AHMAD, Bandana., (1990). Black Perspectives in Social Work. Birmingham: Venture. Page 43.
-
McKNIGHT, Jacquelyn., A Poem from the Being Different Collection. ‘Oppression of Society.’ . (4 Nov 2001).
-
LAWSON, Tony, & GARROD, Joan., (1993). The complete A to Z Sociology Handbook. Tonbridge: Greengate. Page 3
-
JOSEPH ROWNTREE FOUNDATION. The Impact of the Child Support Act on lone mothers and their children. . (3 Nov 2001)
- JOSEPH ROWNTREE FOUNDATION. (as above)
-
JOSEPH ROWNTREE FOUNDATION. Private welfare insurance and social security. . (3 Nov 2001)
- JOSEPH ROOWNTREE FOUNDATION. (as above)
-
SCOTTISH OFFICE PUBLICATION. Social Inclusion Summary.
- SCOTTISH OFFICE PUBLICATION. (as above)
Bibliography
-
AHMAD, Bandana., (1990). Black Perspectives in Social Work. Birmingham: Venture.
-
COMMISSION on SOCIAL JUSTICE., (1994). Social Justice: Strategies for National Renewal. London: Venture.
-
COULSHED, Veronica, & ORME, Joan., (1998). Social Work Practice: An Introduction. 3rd ed. Basingstoke: MacMillan.
-
DENNEY, D., (1998). Social Policy and Social Work. Oxford: Clarendon.
-
DOMINELLI, Lena., (1992). Anti-Racist Social Work. Basingstoke: MacMillan.
-
FABB, Janet, & GUTHRIE, (1992). Thomas G,. Social Work and the Law in Scotland. Edinburgh: Butterworths.
-
HARALAMBOS, Michael, & HOLBORN, Martin., (1991). Sociology: Themes and Perspectives. 3rd ed. London: Collins.
-
HARVEY, Lee. & MacDONALD, Morag., (1993). Doing Sociology: A Practical Introduction. Basingstoke: MacMillan.
-
HAYES, Nicky., (1994). Foundation of Psychology: An Introductory Text. London: Routledge.
-
HILL, Michael., (1990). Understanding Social Policy. 3rd ed. Oxford: Blackwell.
-
LAWSON, Tony. & GARROD, Joan., (1999). The Complete A to Z Sociology Handbook. Tonbridge: Greengate.
-
O’CONNOR, William. & LEWIS Jane., Experiences of Social Exclusion in Scotland. Central Research Unit. Scottish Executive Publication.
-
SCOTTISH OFFICE PUBLICATION. Social Inclusion Summary.
-
THOMPSON, Neil.,(1993). Anti-Discriminatory Practice. Basingstoke: MacMillan.
-
TOWNSEND, Peter., (1970). Concept of Poverty. London: Heinemann.
-
TOWNSEND, Peter., (1979). Poverty in the United Kingdom. Middlesex: Penguin, Harmondsworth.