The Body In Islam
This project will aim explore theories of the body within the religion of Islam; which will be presented using empirical examples. References will be drawn from Peter Burger, Anthony Giddiness, Nick Crossley's, Fuad Khuri's and Imam Ghazali work. We will consider how certain practices of the body within the Islamic tradition assist in individual identity within the scope of the social world.
Islam is a major world religion with the second largest followers in the world. It is conceptualized as a way of life setting certain guidelines drawn from the prophetic Sunnah1, and the Divine scripture: the Quran. The tradition relates to human behaviour proposing a set of methods and processes for the spiritual development of mankind. Prophets are used as models; therefore Muslims2 have roles to imitate.
Belief in the existence of a supreme being and the strength of that belief helps the individual follow the rules and regulations laid down by that particular religion. Whilst analysing religion Max Weber found that the behaviour of those who followed the teachings of a faith, affected certain aspects of the society.
'Sociology concerns itself with social action' .This acting consists of individuals attaching a subjective meaning to their behaviour (1921/1968, p.4). Sociology of the body concentrates on how our bodies are affected by social pressures. Theorists have introduced concepts of 'social pressure' and the extent to which they aid forms of human embodiment.
In traditional society when religion was professed as an effective force, it had an effect on the structure of society as the set of beliefs proposed by the religion infused devout practices/rituals and social attitudes among many individuals. Therefore although belief is internal, much of it is manifested into outward actions. Muslims believe every action is alleged to be accounted for; this has an elementary effect on the way Muslims choose to conduct themselves.
Human assumption concerning self identity, in turn can also have an effect on how individuals confront their bodies. Peter Berger proposes that religion offers humans the 'sacred canopy' which preserves a collective idea of 'the world, the body and self identity'. Religion can give meaning to ones self identity, thus affecting the body. Accordingly we will discuss what religion offers which determines our perception of self identity, our embodied selves and the social world we live in. (Shilling C 1993)
Certain practices of the body within the Islamic tradition assist in individual identity.
Al-Ghazali is one of the greatest Islamic Jurists, theologians and mystical philosopher. He proposed that humans should recognize that "nothing is nearer to them then themselves, and if individuals are not familiar with themselves, then how can they know anything else?" whilst discussing knowledge of self, he does not refer to our understanding of the outward shape of our body or internal aspects such as our face, limbs, and so forth, but awareness of who we are, where we have come from, where we are going and our sole purpose of life. Thus, Al-Ghazali comments if one was to closely examine the details of a fine poem, it would expose gradually the intellect of its creator, in the same context if mankind contemplated and understood the true meaning of their bodies it would lead to a enhanced understanding of there creator. Hence Al-Ghazali suggests that the primary stage of self knowledge in Islam, understands individuals as being 'composed of an outward shape', labelled the body, and an internal article categorized as the heart. The division of the body and soul is a common belief; however it differs in reference to diverse societies.
The Qur'an refers to the body as 'jasad', which is composed of organic materials. As indicated by the Holy Scripture, mankind is fashioned through God 'breathing' into him a soul and creating him from 'clay and mud'. (Quran 15:28-29). The soul 'nafs' is united with the human body.
(Rene Descartes) Cartesian dualism states that humans consist of two entities; the mind and the body. The mind or soul is seen as an immaterial substance that is not destructible by death whilst the body is the material substance which is only temporary. He believed that the two ...
This is a preview of the whole essay
The Qur'an refers to the body as 'jasad', which is composed of organic materials. As indicated by the Holy Scripture, mankind is fashioned through God 'breathing' into him a soul and creating him from 'clay and mud'. (Quran 15:28-29). The soul 'nafs' is united with the human body.
(Rene Descartes) Cartesian dualism states that humans consist of two entities; the mind and the body. The mind or soul is seen as an immaterial substance that is not destructible by death whilst the body is the material substance which is only temporary. He believed that the two were interlinked at some point, (he suggested that it was the brain). However he wasn't quite sure how the interaction took place. This view is similar to the Islamic view of the mind and body. Within Islamic teachings there is a clear distinction between the body and soul. The soul is perceived to be eternal and remains even after ones death; however the body refers to the material and physical side which is only temporary. One, who has belief of one God, is referred to as Muslim; however a Mu'min is one whose belief is manifested into actions through the body. The prophet Muhammad suggested that we "should treat the body like a rider treats a camel" The camel is a vessel for the soul's journey towards the ultimate reality which is contained within the Akhira3. The final destination of which is entirely dependent on the root one has taken. If one spends little time on nurturing ones camel for its basic needs e.g. food/water/shelter the camels' physical well being is inevitably to deteriorate. Thus the camel will not be assisting the rider in the best possible way. Additionally if one spends excessive time grooming and adorning their camel, the camel although beautified will not serve its primary purpose (escorting the rider on his journey).Therefore the body has been created with the sole object that the soul should make use of it in the fulfilment of its duties and responsibilities. Hence, the body is not an incarceration for the soul as Islam condemns the asceticism of life to a certain extent. The religion proposes a set of methods and processes for the spiritual development of man not outside this world but inside it. Therefore, there are certain practices/activities within the religion which help to elevate and uplift the spirit.
Muslims practice certain rituals involving the body to confirm their faith. 'Salah' the term used to describe the obligatory prayers which are performed five times a day, are a direct link between the worshipper and God. This physical prayer involves certain movements and differing positions of the body. What is important within Islam is to purify the mind and soul (heart), however in-order to attain such a level of purity, one must complete the basic levels of purification, hence the bodily organs. As a result the purity of the body is a prerequisite before prayer. "There must be no 'najasat4' on the body of a person praying" (Bukhari). The cleanliness includes: "washing your faces, your hands (and arms) to the elbows; Rub your heads (with water); and (wash) your feet to the ankles" (Quran 5:6). Acts of cleanliness are considered half of faith.
There are many types of impurities, which fall into the "polluted" category derived from Fuad Khuri's work. If the body is contaminated with visible impurities and those which are subject to change it is obligatory to cleanse them. These impurities derive from the human body such as excrement of discharge, semen, menstruation blood and vomit. Sweat and tears for example which have emitted from the body but not after change so are considered pure. Muslims also practice purification from bodily growths such as cutting nails, removal of the hairs of pubes and male circumcision. These practices concerning the body are enforced to improve cleanliness. An illustration of the social practice of circumcision of males, involves the amputation of the foreskin which is carried out to avoid urinary and other infections. This practice is also wide spread in America within non-Muslims for hygiene purposes. Also the removal of pubic hair for cleanliness, due their close proximity to perspiration glands. In addition what has also been categorised as "polluted", is the impurity of sexual intercourse with a women during her menstruation period. Purity of the body is also assigned to the deceased. Islam dictates specific practices for preparing the body of the deceased for burial and entombment.
Believers of this faith on the subject of their mortal life associate their bodies with the notion of "From Allah5 we come and to Allah we return". Commentary on this verse from the Quran insinuates the belief of life after death, which is one of the fundamental beliefs of this religion. Islam relates to the idea of 'shared meaning systems', which are results of what humans make an integral part of their attitudes. As these have been pursued through generations, they have developed into 'social facts', which in turn affects human perception as social structures are altered into conscious structures. This analysis which has been derived from Peter Berger's work, suggests that 'consciousness precedes socialisation', which can be noticed in 'marginal situations', the main one being death. Therefore Berger argues of death being a social predicament as it doubts the fundamental theories upon which society is structured in. (Shilling C 1993)
Theories of the body as a corporeal being have dominated assumptions of the body as deceased, which is a highlighted belief in Islam. Death is an event which is biologically guaranteed, out of human control and a worldwide boundary in social systems. Peter Berger in his work 'The sacred canopy' discusses the issue of death within society by referring to the evolutionary status of humans. Through this he argues that 'conditions of embodiment force individuals to act in a certain manner and give meaning to these actions'. (Shilling C 1993)
Anthony Giddens' methodology on the connection between life after death reviews the conditions of traditional, post-modern and modern societies. His findings imply that as traditional society, religion was dominating the social order; therefore identity was revived through practices which linked individuals to 'the reproduction of long established social positions' and provide individuals with a sense of individuality. (Shilling C 1993)
Anthony Gidden's comments on how contemporary (secular) societies have to an extent ignored the faith traditional culture held, and for this reason masses of the general population are becoming attached to their bodies. This can be noticed in the increasingly popularity of body projects. However whilst examining the fashion industry, we find that it is one of the largest and fastest growing industries worldwide which confirms the social pressure of the presentation of ones selves, in regard to the way we dress. Islam promotes covering of the body in public. Yet there is a social force which promotes nudity, therefore Muslims are caught between two inconsistent desires: to cover or not to cover. Clothing designs mirror the differing levels of compromise between these opposing forces. Being free to wear what you like as apposed to not wearing what you like. Muslims are expressing their right not to dress to norms of society and from the pressure to establish themselves from a certain look.
A majority of humans have an innate sense of shame; however what triggers embarrassment is 'social incompetence'. (Lecture notes). What is perceived to be shameful however does change with time. In the Islamic tradition, the body can be a cause of "shame", applying to both men and women. The body in Islam has been categorised as "private" and is constrained through dress. (Fuad I. Khuri 2001)
Modesty and chastity are very important ideologies within the Islamic tradition, and are achieved by prescribing standards on behaviour and the dress of a Muslim. Dress in Islam is a crucial factor of social control which identifies the wearer as a Muslim.
Muslims dress must cover bodies adequately and provide for decent appearance. A woman is required to follow the dress code called 'Hijab', which includes the entire body except hands and face. Male must cover from the navel to the knees and must not be wear tight or revealing clothing. It is also necessary for males to grow a fist length beard. This aims to protect women and men from the lustful gaze of their opposition. The design of dress also aims to avoid arrogance and self indulgence and intends to establish Islamic identity. It does not accommodate for circumstances and tastes, the principles are for everyone. Concealing ones private parts is considered divine law, however the way in which culture incorporates and accommodates for it is permissible; the underlying principle is modesty. This approach can be noticed in different cultures. Where in Pakistan for example they dress wearing a baggy tunic and trousers, in comparison to Somalia, where the ruling has been interpreted as one piece of material which disguises the body from head to toe.
Thus the body is not made use of as an object to be adorned or exposed, and so for this reason there is an injunction placed on drawing and paintings of the body. Traditional Islamic art puts more emphasis on calligraphy, complex designs and geometric figures, as an alternative for human forms and looks. Even modern day Islamic art, the body is highlighted in the context of its symbolic meanings rather then its detailed composition. "Say to the believing men and women that they should lower their gaze and guard their private parts"
Similar to the western ideology of cupid's arrow, Prophet Mohammed regarded the secret lustful look of a person to the opposite gender to an arrow from Satan. Therefore in-order to keep society in harmony and reduce natural desires not only is there a prescribed dress, but also body language is an important phenomenon, thus "Lowering ones gaze" is a practice between men and women both.
Islam teaches the human body to be a great blessing from God. Hence the destruction on one's health is prohibited including the consumptions of too much food, or too less if is was to worsen ones physical condition. Social factors such as the desire to be thin have an effect on how individuals deal with their bodies. Through advertising, food is heavily linked to pleasure, self-image and fulfilment. However, diet plays an important role in Islam to ensure that the physical body is kept healthy so that the soul and spirit may also remain healthy in-order to aid the believer in the service of both his spiritual and material attainment.
In the holy month of Ramadan, Muslims practice fasting. "O you who believe, fasting is prescribed for you..."(2:183) This practice intend to teach Muslims self-discipline and self-restraint, disciplining the body to refrain from eating and drinking from predawn until sunset It shifts the focus of one's attention from bodily needs to spiritual needs.
There are many verses in the Qur'ân which draw man's attention towards him self and which invite him to carefully study his body and soul and the nature of their mutual relationship. For this reason mankind and all living creatures are divided into sects, labelled as either "pure" or polluted". Islam has a categorised system of food, where some food is prohibited "haram" due to their ill effects, and permitted "halal" all other pure, good and clean food products. "O' Believers! Eat of the good and pure (lawful) that .We have provided you with and be grateful to Allah, if you truly worship Him." (2:172).
The different categories assigned to the body, practices and rituals of the body, covering of the body, consumption of food in the body, the body as deceased, these integration of ideas and practices of Islam offers Muslims a perception of their self identity, their embodied selves and the social world they live in. However Islam establishes a balance between individualism and collectivism. It believes in the individual personality of man and holds everyone personally accountable to God. It guarantees the fundamental rights of the individual and does not permit anyone to tamper with them. It also makes the proper development of the personality of man one of the prime objectives of its educational policy. Islam does not subscribe to the view that the person must loose his/her individuality within the society. On the other hand, Islam also awakens a sense of social responsibility in man, organised human beings in society and then enjoins the individual to subscribe to social good. Islam neither neglects individual or society. It establishes a harmony and balance between the two and assigns to each its proper due.
Aisha Bewley, 1998 Glossary of Islamic terms Ta-Ha publications
Crossley N, 2001 The social body: habit, identity and desire. Sage publications.
The Philosophical Works of Descartes translated by Elizabeth S. Haldane. (Cambridge University Press),
Fuad I. Khuri 2001 The body in Islamic culture Saqi Books
Shilling C (1993) The body and social theory. Cambridge university press.
Weber, Max. 1968/1921. Economy and Society. Translated and edited by Guenther Roth and Claus Whitish. New York: Bedminster Press.
http://www.sahihalbukhari.com/sps/sbk/ (Sayings of the Prophet)
http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/reference/reference.html (Quran database)
Empirical example of the Prophet
2 Followers of Islam
3 Afterlife
4 Impurities
5 One true God
1