The 1996 Australian Bureau of Statistics census outlined 1.1% of the Australian population or 199,812 people as identifying themselves as being Buddhist (Spuler, 2000, p.29). Within the Australian context, Buddhism can be bifurcated to two main types of practice; the ‘convert’ or ‘non-ethnic’ type and the ‘ethnic’ or ‘immigrant’ type (Spuler, 2000, p.33). The Buddhist tradition within Australia has been identified as being of a diversity of lineages and displaying varied ethnic compositions (Spuler, 2000, p.41). Contemporary studies have revealed that ethnic Buddhists can often experience greater prejudices than their convert companions (Spuler, 2000, p.33). Convert Buddhists generally have a greater interest in the experience of meditation or the study of the Buddhist philosophy rather than strictly adhering to the Buddhist tradition and referring to themselves as Buddhists (Spuler, 2000, p.33). Conversely, ethnic or immigrant Buddhists are typically born into the Buddhist religion and often combine their practice within a specific cultural context enabling the ongoing maintenance of their cultural identity (Spuler, 2000, p.33). Buddhism within the Australian context has been said to have followed the Westernised trend of emphasis on lay-person (religious follower, not otherwise identified as clergy) practice and similarly an emphasis of equality among female adherents; however due to lack of empirical data a direct determination cannot be made (Spuler, 2000, p.39). Historically and contemporarily, the role of female Buddhists has varied between traditions and demographics; this has been reflected in the apparent Western inclination of equality for women in religious practice (Spuler, 2000, p.39).
In an example parallel with many other religions, both Eastern and Western; Buddhism has traditionally been unsuccessful in offering women equal status with men (Landlaw & Bodian, 2003, p.139 & Cush, 2004, p.219). Buddha was in fact explicit in treating men and women equally; he made it clear that women had equal capacity for enlightenment as men; however his followers over the centuries have not applied his sentiment (Landlaw & Bodian, 2003, p.139). In opposition, contemporary Western cultures instead see the patriarchal, male-dominated structures as a result of the culture and time period in which the Buddha lived, rather than an essential interpretation that should be abided (Cadge, 2004, p.785). Buddhism evolved in the contextual time period of female oppression; society was strongly informed by androcentric values and the gender stereotypes of the surrounding culture were a constant influence (Gross, 1993, p.61). Stereotypes suggested that women were less intelligent than men, less interested in worldly concerns, less inclined toward spiritual disciplines and unable to control themselves sexually (Gross, 1993, p.61). The perceived seductive powers of the female resulted in monks perceiving women to be potential threats to their spiritual welfare, thus relegating them to the sensual realm as opposed to the spiritual realm (Paul, 1985, p.303). Stereotypes of the female were attached to sensuality and domesticity; the female as a mother was also attached to notions of sensuality (Paul, 1985, pp.304-305). Due to this nature, interactions with women were perceived as contaminative; women were perceived to be the cause of mental anguish and pain and were to be considered as competitors to the monastic Buddhist community (Paul, 1985, p.304). Contemporarily, it has been documented heavily that Buddhism in the Western context has the distinct characteristic of equality between men and women being able to gain access to and to practice the tradition in identical forms (Cadge, 2004, p.779). A limitation to this however is the disagreement between the capability of women as lay-practioners and the supposed inability of women to teach or to lead Buddhist centres within the Western context, especially within traditional Theravada centres (Cadge, 2004, p.780).
Along with ethnic-Asian immigrants bringing Buddhism to light in Australia, the occurrence of increased postmodern individualism, a disenchantment with the Vietnam war, English language studies of exotic Asian cultures and the emergence of New Age religions were all seen as important factors in the evolvement of the Buddhist tradition within the Australian landscape (Phillips & Aarons, 2005, pp.220-221). Beginning in the 1960’s and continuing into the 1970’s a number of Westerners made their way East in an attempt at gaining ancient wisdom, some say as an alternative to their materialistic culture to which they knew (Landlaw & Bodian, 2003, p.94). Many returned to the West and began sharing what they had learnt with others and establishing centres that brought ancient practices and rituals to the Western public (Landlaw & Bodian, 2003, p.95). An early interest was developed by bohemians and middle-class intellectuals and later drawing the attention of social elites in the metropolitan cities of Australia (Phillips & Aarons, 2005, p.220). It has been estimated that as many as one in every thirteen of Australia’s almost 200,000 self-identifying Buddhists is a Westerner (Phillips & Aarons, 2005, p.220). As Morris has documented “during the last half-century, there has been a renaissance of Buddhism in the ‘West’, both as a subject of study and as a new religious movement(s)” (Morris, 2006, p.46). Indeed Eastern thought and its ancient science of the mind is increasingly invading the West (Humphries, 1956, p.222).
Another lure to the Western market is the emphasis within Buddhism on individual freedom and self-motivation, due to this nature Buddhism inevitably opens the door to participants seeking access at any level of involvement (Landlaw & Bodian, 2003, p.125). Further, as Buddhism is a spiritual tradition based on human potential rather than worship of an external divinity, New Age is positive towards it, especially towards the practice of meditation (Cush, 2004, p.210). New Age spiritualities are a flexible and diffuse vision based around alternation between fluid sets of practice and belief (Phillips & Aarons, 2005, p.217). It is this lure which has resulted in the statement: the “‘Easternisation’ of ‘Western’ societies” (Campbell, 1999 as cited in Phillips & Aarons, 2005, p.216). The tendency of Buddhism to restrict thinking about reflexive spiritual engagement to a New Age style is one causal factor to the attraction that Buddhism holds for Westerners (Phillips & Aarons, 2005, p.216). Buddhism is framed as simply one of the many possible products that spiritual consumers may consume (Roof, 1999 as cited in Phillips & Aarons, 2005, p.216). The tradition may be easily chosen and just as effortlessly discarded by the spiritual consumer in their own spiritual quest (Bauman, 1998 as cited in Phillips & Aarons, 2005, p.216). As Phillips & Aarons have stated “It is possible for individuals to now select freely from the increasing array of globally-sourced choices available in the newly emerging ‘spiritual market-place” (Phillips & Aarons, 2005, p.217). Arguably the most prominent Buddhist in the world, the Dalai Lama himself advises that you do not need to change your religion to benefit from the teachings of Buddhism (Landlaw & Bodian, 2003, p.124). The Dalai Lama frequently answers when asked to identify his own religion “My religion is kindness” (as cited in Landlaw & Bodian, 2003, p.124).
However due to the nature of Buddhism having an emphasis on individual effort toward individual enlightenment (Humphries, 1958, p.220), it has an inclination towards being difficult to measure in terms of measuring how much Buddhism or the broader cultural influences of Buddhism may have grown. Those who are involved in the practice or beliefs of Buddhism but may not identify themselves as Buddhists are then typically excluded from the official counting (Phillips & Aarons, 2005, p.220). As an example, Zen Buddhism, a strand of Mahayana Buddhism places a great emphasis on maintaining clear awareness of the present moment through meditation and other similar activities (Landlaw & Bodian, 2003, p.111), both of which can be practiced in an individualised manner impervious to empirical measurement.
The influence of New Age on Buddhism and Buddhism on New Age has resulted in a vast number of spiritual consumers practicing and in some cases converting to the faith. The availability of resources in which one can learn about the ancient tradition has also been altered by the influence of New Age. In the past, information and teachings about Buddhist practices could only be gained by permission and initiation from a lama; however now a New Ager can simply purchase a book from a New Age bookstore (Cush, 2004, p.219). Varying and numerous Buddhist books are currently available at mainstream and New Age bookstores which allows for the faith to be readily accessible and ‘enjoyable’ as entertainment (Landlaw & Bodian, 2003, p.127). These guides offer once-ancient wisdom simplified; the difficult language of the sutras and the riddles of the Zen masters has been decoded for ease of consumption (Landlaw & Bodian, 2003, p.127). Others may gain access to information and become enthralled through listening to teachers, either ethnic or convert or through friends (Landlaw & Bodian, 2003, p.126). Others may have heard that the practice is an effective way to alleviate stress and improve their health, while others may be searching for the fundamental cause to their or all human suffering (Landlaw & Bodian, 2003, p.126). For these reasons, Zen Buddhism may have an appeal to Westerners as they have ready access to information on teachings and can practice it without having to accept any new belief systems (Landlaw & Bodian, 2003, p.112). A pertinent example of this is the journal Buddhism Today which is the longest running publication of its kind in Australia (Coleman, 1999, p.18).
In conclusion, the preceeding paper offered a delineation between the distinct characteristics of the ancient religious practice of Buddhism in the Western context with an implicit emphasis on the Australian context. In addition to this, the paper also established the importance of drawing the differences between Buddhism as practiced in the East and Buddhism as practiced in the West again in the contextual time and space of contemporary Australia. These namely being; the dissonant instances of lay-person practice between East and West, the depth and magnitude that the religion is being adopted, the application of the religion privately rather than publically or socially and the inequality of women and men within the Buddhist framework. The other topics elaborated on included the characteristics and the historical context of Eastern and Western Buddhism, the statistics on the prevalence of Buddhist practitioners within Australia and the characteristics of Buddhism from a feminist perspective. Discourse on the causal factors towards the increased prevalence of Buddhism practice in the West was also explored through the theory of globalisation and the ‘Easternisation’ of the West as well as through the lens of New Age spiritualities and postmodern religions with high turnover and high individualism. The question as to why it may be difficult to establish precisely just how much Buddhism or the broader cultural influences of Buddhism may have grown was answered by expounding on the increased availability of teaching and practice material and once private information only available through lamas and through the conception that the method of Buddhist practice, when practiced privately rather than publicly or socially can determine the ability for data to be empirically collected negatively.
Reference List
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Cush, D 2004, ‘British Buddhism and the New Age’, in J. Lewis (ed.) The encyclopaedic sourcebook of new age religions, Prometheus Books, New York, pp.206-221.
Humphries, C 1958, Buddhism, Penguin Books Ltd, Middlesex.
Gross, R 1993, Buddhism after patriarchy: a feminist history, analysis and reconstruction of Buddhism, State University of New York Press, Albany.
Landlaw, J & Bodian, S 2003, Buddhism for dummies, Wiley Publishing, New Jersey.
Morris, B 2006, Religion and anthropology: a critical introduction, Cambridge University Press, New York.
Paul, D 1985, Women in Buddhism: images of the feminine in Mahayana tradition, University of California Press, London.
Phillips, T & Aarons, H 2005, ‘Choosing Buddhism in Australia: towards a traditional style of reflexive spiritual engagement’, The British Journal of Sociology, vol.56, no.2, pp.215-232.
Spuler, M 2000, ‘Characteristics of Buddhism in Australia’, Journal of Contemporary Religion, Vol.15, no.1, pp.29-44.
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