Naturally, specialization took place as a result of division of labor between the genders. To achieve highest efficiency in the course of specialization, genders are conditioned swiftly. For example, male hunters’ lives were at anger when hunting wild animals. Their own nature (mentally and physically) drove them to build up courage and face the challenge because they needed the food for survival. So courage was important in keeping men to face life and death hunting situation. Another example is in tendering babies. Newborn babies are weak in their only nature, so women had to treat with their babies with extra care, attention and details. If this was not an inborn property, that it must have been developed in the centuries of women treating babies, and in the course they learnt that mishandling of babies led to casualties and thereby threatening the continuance of the species.
Other traits, which functionalists argue to have developed, are:
- Instrumental orientation & expressiveness
- Thrusting outward/focused inward
It is arguable if the conditioning passes on over the generations through hereditary means but for sure, parents teach their children of their knowledge. One thing many socialists fail to emphasize is the children’s ability to learn. Learning capability, a distinct property that distinguish human from other animals, is inborn and therefore children learn from the scanning of the environment. Feminists always argue genders are indoctrinated to behave how as they are through the course of socialization and to this they regard as with purpose. What they have not regarded is the children’s ability to learn by themselves, and learning does not to be the sole purpose of one’s behavior when observed by children. The sociologists use the term socialization to describe the learning process where the younger generation to learn and adapt to the existing culture.
Functionalists maintain the positive effect of socialization: not only that the genders learn how to behave and what to behave, but in regard to social behavior, that misbehavior could cause chaos and make their others not knowing what to respond. Functionalists therefore argue the natural part of socialization – that being a tool to maintain social order and stability.
B. Conflicts Theory
Whilst functionalists look at the origin of gender inequality, conflict theorists look at why gender inequality subsists. More toward feminists’ viewpoint, it is argued that gender inequality gender conflict.
They see the conflicts to be result of differential access to the means of production (tools, land, knowledge) and to its products (goods and services).
Conflict theorists argue it is the economic contribution and their ability to inherit properties that determine women’s social and personal freedom. On this point, it is interesting to note that few men complained against their social position and responsibilities toward women and families.
Whilst gender appears to be the only social class (if one might so call it) in the eyes of the conflict theorists, the fundamental difference is not so much of forces of production and means of production. Very few feminists argue or admit they are of feminine gender but of female sex. That being the case, sex seems to be the border for the gender difference and not forces of production. This could be the reason why Marx had put little attention to gender inequality as class conflict – one which cannot change (sex) through revolution or war.
Anyway, borrowing from the traditional conflict theorists, the modern conflict theorists (or feminists) expanded their arguments of economic contribution that dominance shifts between gender in relation to the gender supporting the family food and economic well-being.
Conflict theorists also hold socialization accountable for indoctrinating women to accept more submissive and inferior roles. The socialization process takes place not to the notice of the women and started from when they were babies on how they dressed up and associated with (e.g. toys). This continued with purposely knowledge transfer from parents in family and through education and other social encounters. As such women internalized women’s traits and are conditioned to behave, and more severely, to reason with such cultivated social belief and values.
The Conflict theorists lean on the other side for the purpose of socialization – that social order actually imprison women freedom to act on their will even whey they realized they have choice to in contrary manually cultivated norms. This is because that would upset relationship with the other gender and sometimes even violence (wife not cooking at home may be deprived of by husband, women starring in traditional Chinese Opera).
However, they have also failed to mention that their behavior may be regarded as their fellow gender holders as odd and they’re disassociated with. That is to say, the fear of losing acceptance and solidarity within the gender is forces in keeping the gender holder to behave as the gender normally do.
Gender Inequality in Hong Kong
A. Education
Table A5 shows Population Aged 15 and Over (Excluding Foreign Domestic Helpers) by Educational Attainment (Highest Level Attended).
The 9 years’ compulsory education system guarantees minimum education for both genders. Our focus is more on the tertiary education. Some colleges including Ling Nam Colleges and Baptist Colleges have been recognized universities in recent years. These, together with the rapid expansion of courses by the universities in Hong Kong, and additionally, increase the seats available in Hong Kong. Ample amount of overseas correspondence degree programs have also been made available in recent years. All these lead to balanced demand/supply for tertiary education.
All these offer students enough seats to pursue. As such, number of degree holders jump. This is more obvious when compared between The Years, degree holders for female increase from 84,141 of 1991 to 298,652 of 2001 (250% increase). Male increase is (130%). This signifies gender inequality in education is closing up (Conflict).
Higher educational Attainment amongst female improves female employment and promotion opportunities (revisited later) yet cause other social problem discussed in the other parts of this paper.
:
A59 Population Aged 15 and Over (Excluding Foreign Domestic Helpers-Female
A59 Population Aged 15 and Over (Excluding Foreign Domestic Helpers-Male
Table 4.3 reflects the pace of women’s increase in receiving tertiary education. Whilst overall (the last column to the right) men is still outnumber women by a token percentile point difference, the women in the course of studying tertiary education actually exceeds men. For example, I the year 2001, 58,948 women were studying tertiary education and there were only 56,167 men, in comparison.
(Function) argues the selection criteria of universities have changed in recent years, which undermine male at the benefit of female. For example, universities have put more weighting on academic achievement and less on areas where male used to outperform female e.g. physical education. The change reduces males’ opportunities to enter their desired universities.
Chart 4.1 shows Percentage Distribution of Population with Tertiary Education and Field of Education.
We notice men tend to enroll on engineering programs, computer studies, civil and construction engineering. Women, on the other hand, tend to enroll more on Education, Medical and health related studies (becoming nurses).
Another development is both genders have increased enrolment on business studies, arts and social sciences, and along this line, women is leading.
(Function) of course, argues such diversion in interest reflect the tradition of division in labor and specialization of gender into occupations they have better talents and more suitable personalities traits.
(Conflict) Men are socialized to associate with outgoing, challenging jobs and women less outgoing and less risk-taking. This is reflected in the polarization in the choice of courses.
The transformation of Hong Kong from a society of manufacturing to one of service brings tremendous change in the skills set required of school-leavers. In response to the changing environment, universities introduce more business and related disciplines courses. (Function) would argue female would have advantage over male, as less physical stress is required. As times goes by, male’s would be prejudiced not only from limited scope of course choices but also in employment opportunities.
C4.1ercentage Distribution of Population with Tertiary Education and Field of Education
B. Employment & Incomes
Table A8 shows Working Population (Excluding Foreign Domestic Helpers) by Monthly Income from Main Employment.
(Conflict) would argue women held lower pay jobs as men prejudice them.
(Function) would argue women, not being the main family supporter, would tend to accept lower pay. Elsewhere, we would try to explore reasons why men/women pay is different. At this point, suffice to note that these mainland Chinese women are normally not well educated. Many of them arrive Hong Kong in reunion with husbands. In the meantime, as Hong Kong gave up its manufacturing business, skilled and semi-skilled workers had to switch to service industry, which was thriving. Jobs were open to work in fast food restaurants and supermarkets etc. These jobs are more for unskilled labor. Moreover, their arrivals also adds additional burden to the employment market. A simple economic principle, supply outstrips demands and salary drops. This is reflected in the salary trend.
Looking at income of HK$30,000 or more, we see a different picture. Despite men’s is still outnumbering women in the higher income bracket, we see the gap is closing up. For example 8.9% of female population in year 2001 earns more than HK$30,000 a month as compared to 1.1% of 1991. The corresponding percentages for men are respectively, 13.6% and 3.5%.
(Conflict) the change in higher income bracket shows women more and more women are being freed from men’s prejudice.
(Function) the change typically proves the society reward talents and skill-earners with higher pay and social status such that gender inequality is not on biased but natural evolvement.
A8 Working Population (Excluding Foreign Domestic Helpers) by Monthly Income from Main
Employment and Sex, 1991, 1996 and 2001
Table A9 shows the Median Monthly Income from Main Employment of Working Population.
(Conflict) argues men’s profiles are aggressive and stronger so businessmen tend to hire men for senior positions. (As illustrated in the occupation of Managers and administrators)
(Function) argue more on hidden costs associated to women (pregnancy, and other problems, more exploration at the latter part of this paper) and show there is a gap of salary.
(Function) argues the parity of monthly income for the occupation of associates professional and clerks illustrate income differentials is not on prejudice or else the gap should appear across all occupations. The differential that exists in different occupations merely reflects reward to talents and skills’ holders.
A93 Median Monthly Income from Main Employment of Working Population
(Excluding Foreign Domestic Helpers) by Occupation
Table A7 shows Working Population (Excluding Foreign Domestic Helpers) by Occupation.
(Function) notice in manager grade, female holder increase 84% (from 50,390 of 1991 to 92,614 of 2001). Men corresponding increase is 30%. This demonstrates if women possess the right education and skills, they would be eligible for managerial promotions. Here talent and skill is the drive not gender.
(Conflict) would argue situation has improved but there is still inequality. Somehow, there is increase in women’s confidence in career development as they attain higher education and women now realize only sky is the limit to them.
(Function) notice from the skilled agricultural and fishery workers that physical strength is required of these occupations. Men are physically stronger and more used to risk. As such, in 1991, there were 20,757 male but 7,239 female in the sector.
The table also reflects shifts of workforce from assembly workers to service workers during The Years. As mentioned, women fit more to service workers’ profile over men.
(Conflict) would develop and if the trend subsists, men would begin to shout against women in pursuit for gender equality!
A71 Working Population (Excluding Foreign Domestic Helpers) by Occupation
Chart 5.2 is Labor Force Participation Rates by Age Group and Marital Status. Reading it in conjunction with Chart 5.1 gives a deeper understanding about labor participation further explain gender inequality in payroll.
NOTE: married person (includes, now married, widowed, divorced and separated for the purpose of studying Chart 5.2)
We observed,
- Women versus never married women:
- Married women retire earlier than never married women,
- Married women quit upon marriage
- Married men versus never married me
- Married men provides steady participation,
- Married men retire later then unmarried men
- Married men do not quit on marriage
- Man versus women in general
- Men provide steady workforce.
- For some reasons other than marriage, women withdraw from labor market beginning age 25-29.
Married women are least reliable workforce supply. Married men are the most reliable ones.
(Function) men are the primary income earner, bearing the load to feed the family, whence they keep on working. Married women are more geared family maintenance after marriage. The finding is supportive to higher reward in attracting male work force.
Men is overall reliable supply than women. Logically, higher reward would be offered to attract male work force.
C5.29 Labor Force Participation Rates by Age Group and Marital Status
Table 5.4 shows Working Population by Economic Activity Status.
Male employers outnumber female employers but the gap is closing up over The Years.
(Function) argues this shows as long as gender holders are equipped with the necessary talents & skills, they can become rich.
(Conflict) The outnumbering male employers have prejudice against females and thereby their chances to advance are remote.
T5.41 Working Population by Economic Activity Status
Chart 5.1 illustrates the Labor Force Participation Rates by Age Group
The charts provide very useful information in answering some of the gender problems.
(Function) argue women are natural housekeepers. Their participation at work takes up at the same pace as men at age before 25-29 but drops steadily until age 35-39 a pick up is noticed. But the slide resume at the age 45-49 and then steadily down. This means women withdraw themselves from the labor market at the two critical ages, i.e. 25-29 ad 45-49. Over The Years, these profiles remain unchanged. Age 25-29 is medium age for female to get married; we generalize the dip represents women getting married and retreating back home to look after the family. (Conflict) argues women either are socialized or held tight by tradition to quit after marriage.
At the age 35-39, we can image an average woman would have had married for 7-12 years, with 1 child who is now capable of taking care himself and therefore the woman could resume work for some years. Else, it would be too bored to stay at home. They would more likely to look for part-time or less stressful jobs as their priority is still with their family. Accordingly, (Function) they would take lower pay jobs (rewarding less for skills, talents, dedications.)
Women also retire earlier. This is also due to statutory protection. This helps explain the dip at age 45-49.
Looking at the male’s participation, we notice the graph looks much flatter at the peak; thereby ensuring men do not withdraw from the labor market. (Function) cost of training has to be amortized over an employee service years. In the case of female, changes are anticipated (see preceding paragraphs). Employers want steady labor supply and long term service. As such they offer higher pay to attract male. In other words, pay differential, as a general rule, is a reward to the male’s commitment to work life.
C5.17 Labor Force Participation Rates by Age Group
C. Human Rights & Politics
Briefly, we want to look at gender inequality in human rights ad politics. We restrict ourselves to the following:
- Legislative Council
- Executive Council
- University Stewardship
We have chosen the above 3; because the first one is common right to all Hong Kong citizens and latter two are the actual as well as symbolic bureaucratic apex in Hong Kong.
Legislative Council
The Legislative Council of the HKSAR has 60 members, with
A. 24 Members returned by geographical constituencies through direct elections,
B. 30 Members by functional constituencies, and
C. 6 Members by an Election Committee comprising 800 elected representatives of the
Community.
(Source: HKSAR web)
Both genders have equal voting in the election in the capacity as voters in the geographical constituencies election.
However, members of the functional constituencies vote for the other 30 legislative councilors. Out of these functional constituencies, a large representation of the eligible voters or influences are male businessmen (see table 5.4), it is arguable that the female gender are being suppressed by male genders (Conflict).
(Functionalists) argues men are more suitable for aggression and venture. Legislative Councillorship is one that requires these personal traits and therefore more male councilors are justified.
This perhaps can be reflected by the fact that there are only 11 female councilors but 49 male councilors out of 60.
(Please refer to the appendix for detail listing of councilors)
Executive Council
Article 55 of the Basic Law stipulates that the Chief Executive shall appoint members of the Executive Council from among the principal officials of the executive authorities, members of the Legislative Council and public figures.
The following list shows there are only 3 members are female and they are all standing member in their capacities as head of government departments. Out of the councilors appointed by the Chief Executive, No one is female.
Again the finding shows males suppress females (Conflict).
(Functionalists) argument on the Legislative Councilors applies here.
Source: HKSAR 1/12/2002
(Please refer to the appendix for detail listing of councilors)
University Stewardship
There are 8 universities in Hong Kong (please refer to the appendix for detail listing of university stewardship). All 8 headmasters are male.
(Functionalists) argue such senior profiles require outstanding and senior, academic achievers with lots of executive experience to fill these positions. In addition, there were very few female university graduates in the 1950’s. Whence, there are only male candidates suitable.
(Conflicts) see this is the suppression of females by males.
Ideas for Improving Gender Inequality
A. Functionalists
- Education
- Review and refine the collaboration across universities.
- Consolidate Programs offered in considering genders’ need
- Employment & Incomes
- Human Rights & Politics
B. Conflict Theorists
- Education
- Employment & Incomes
- Human Rights & Politics
- Working principle set out to include minimum number of council representation by females.
- Guide to hire Vice Headmaster in opposite gender to the Headmaster
Bibliography
- Sociology, Six Edition, by John J. Macionis, published Prentice Hall, Inc.
- Sociology, a Down-to-Earth Approach by James M. Henslin published by Allyn and Bacon
- Sociology, Fifth Edition, by John M. Shepard, published by West Publishing Company
- Readings in Social Theory – The Classic Tradition to Post-Modernism, third edition by James Farganis published by McGraw Hill
- Sociology, third edition, by Beth B. Hess, Elizabeth W. Markson & Peter J. Stein published by Macmillan Publishing Company
- Introduction to Sociology by Anthony Giddens, published by W.W. Norton & Company
- Jennie Lam
- Theorizing Classical Sociology by Larry J. Ray, published by Open University Press
- An Introduction to Social Theorist by Anthony Giddens, published by Blackwell Publishers.
- Sociology, Themes and Perspectives, Fifth Edition by Haralambos and Holborn published by HarperCollins Publishers Limited
- hl
- Female Power and Male Dominance: On the Origins of Sexual Inequality. New York: Cambridge University Press 1981
- Blumberg, Rae Lesser. Stratification: Socioeconomic and Sexual Inequality. Dubuque
- Thematic Report – Women and Men, Population Census 2001, Hong Kong
- HK Special Administrative Zone – Government Web Site
Appendices
Appendix 4: Table studied under Thematic Report – Women and Men, Population Census 2001, Hong Kong
