There are many theories why the glass ceiling exists. Whitehead (2002) believes that one reason for this is that for women to achieve power men have to give it up. This equates to the failure of men; meaning the glass ceiling, and so patriarchy, provides the opportunities for men to succeed and remain dominant. A further explanation of the glass ceiling comes from Socialist feminism. The glass ceiling keeps women in low grade, less responsible jobs so they can be used as a reserve army of workers that can be employed and dismissed as necessary, so benefiting capitalism, (Bruegal, 1979).
There are some researchers who feel that the glass ceiling theory is not responsible for the under representation of women. Hakim (1995) argues that the low numbers of women in senior level jobs are due to the fact that women don’t want these jobs. Gender inequalities within employment are due to the differences in attitude between men and women, especially in terms of job commitment. Many women are more inclined to either undertake part time work to supplement the male breadwinner’s income or to not work at all. This is due to their acceptance of traditional values. The small number of women in high level positions is due to the low job commitment felt by the majority of women, (Hakim, 1995).
Crompton and Harris (1998) disagree with Hakim’s explanation. Although they do acknowledge the fact that women are a heterogeneous group, that is, they have different aspirations and beliefs; they argue that it is traditional patriarchal values which are preventing women from reaching positions of power and influence.
These issues are all relevant to this research as the reasons for the under representation are central to the research. The focus of this research is patriarchy in the NSW health system but the possibility of discovering different reasons for the under representation of women in dominant positions of the health system is also important.
Previous quantitative research into the glass ceiling and the health system found that, although no evidence was found that the glass ceiling exists in the system, there is:
‘Evidence in some cases of disproportionate promotion that is best interpreted as direct or indirect discrimination.’ McManus and Sproston (2000, pg 10). (Research involving the NSW health system is limited).
Further research into such discrimination can be found involving American health services (research involving the NSW Health System is limited). One piece of research found that reasons for the under representation of women include men's resistance to sharing power and the fears women have in expressing power, (Turkel, 2004). More American research shows that female doctors in medical school faculties are promoted more slowly than men. The research found that these differences are not due to productivity or difference in ability, (Tesch et al, 1995).
It is clear that female doctors face discrimination within health services. This research intends to find what or who is responsible for this discrimination.
Methodology
Sampling:
In order to find participants for the interviews and focus groups, the research will use random sampling in the form of the random numbers method. Sarantakos (1998) explains that this involves giving each member of the sample frame a number and then randomly picking the appropriate amount of numbers for the research.
In terms of this research the first sample frame will consist of all public hospitals within NSW. Five of these hospitals will be randomly picked using the random numbers method. From each of these hospitals, lists of both female and male non-senior doctors will be acquired (by non-senior it is means those who are not involved in the management of wards and/or who are not consultants). Every name on each list will receive a number; four numbers will be picked from each of the female lists and one number from each of the male lists. The first five females from each list will be invited to take part in interviews. The remaining women and all the men will be asked to take part in the focus group. Any doctor who declines the invitation shall not be replaced unless the researchers feel as though the reliability of the research is in jeopardy, then the random sample techniques shall be used again.
Even though random sampling is widely used in quantitative research it is believed that although the actual numbers of participants in the research is low, the samples of hospitals and staff are large enough to be used in random sampling. Random sampling was chosen as it reduces the amount of bias in the research and produces more generalisable results, (Sarantakos, 1998). It is not expected to produce a true understanding.
The research intends to use two types of qualitative methodology in order to achieve its objectives.
Semi-Structured Interviews
The research intends to interview 15 female doctors in order to discover how they feel they are treated by senior male doctors and management and to examine their experiences of promotion and job selection. An interview schedule will be used to guide the researchers, ensuring that the questioning does not drift from the objectives. Mason (2002) explains that interviews allow the researcher to explain any misunderstandings that may arise (the main issue in this research may be in regard to the term patriarchy and its definition). Interviews also provide the opportunity to obtain in depth, detailed explanations (of how women feel they are treated by senior figures within the health system).
‘The purpose of interviewing is to find out what is in and on a persons mind . . . to access the perspective of the person being interviewed . . . to find out things from them that we cannot directly observe’
Patton (1990, p. 278)
Interviews can also present the opportunity of observing the actions of the participants; to read between the lines, (Bilton et al, 2002).
Focus Groups
The focus groups are to consist of both female and male, non-senior doctors. The purpose of the focus groups is to start a discussion regarding promotion to senior positions within the NSW health system. There will also be a schedule available here but it shall not be as structured as that of the interviews. The list of questions is there to bring the discussion back to the topic. Both female and male opinions are important as they may have different experiences and thoughts concerning the promotion process. The main purpose of the focus groups is to find out if this is true within the NSW health system. It is important to see if doctors feel that female and male doctors are treated differently.
Although none of the participants will hold senior positions, their views of those who reached those positions are very important to the research. The researcher involved in the focus group should not ask questions regarding patriarchy and should not acknowledge the under representation of women in senior positions as this may influence the responses.
Focus groups were chosen as a research method as they allow the participants to lower their inhibitions and so talk more openly.
The two types of research were chosen to retrieve information from two different samples. Although the two methods were asking different questions, the analysis and accumulation of results will work towards achieving the objectives of the research, (Silverman, 2005).
Methods of Data Analysis
- Recording Information
Semi-Structured Interviews
One researcher will conduct the one-on-one interviews and transcribe the responses. The interviews will be audio taped and transcribed word for word.
Focus Group
The focus group will be audio recorded and transcribed in order to include how the participants react to one another as well as recording the discussion, (Krueger, 1994). One researcher will transcribe and one researcher will lead the discussion. Both sets of information will be transcribed word for word by one of the researchers involved in the focus group ready for analysis.
- Analysing Information
The intention of the research is to use the constant comparative method of qualitative data analysis.
The research will identify the main themes of the interviews, establish categories and then group the information into these categories.
Two analysts will perform this analysis enabling comparisons, so improving the validity of the interpretation, (Vaughn et al, 1996). A third individual, who is not directly involved with the research, will also analyse the information, so encouraging the possibility of new categories and will also act as a moderator if a disagreement occurs. The main themes will then be re assessed to ensure that they are supported by the developed categories, (Vaughn et al, 1996). An extra category containing irregularities in responses may also be used in order to improve the analysis.
Ethics and Practical Issues
Ethical Issues
Ethical issues are an essential consideration in social research and even more so in the area of health. Hospitals have ethics committees which must be approached in order for research into health related issues to gain approval. Approval will be requested for this research as without permission, the research will be unable to continue. There are many ethical issues which must be presented to the committee.
Consent: consent from each of the hospitals involved must be gained.
Confidentiality: the names of the participants shall only be known by the researchers, once the research has taken place the participants shall be known only by their previously given number. All audio tapes shall be securely stored and destroyed once the research is completed, (Sarantakos, 1998).
Incentive: the participants will be provided with copies of the finished research before the findings are published.
Research Outline: before commencing the interviews and focus groups the participants shall be informed of the type of questions they shall be asked. This will enable them to either prepare themselves or withdraw from the research, (Sarantakos, 1998).
Time Management: interviews and focus groups will take place at times suggested by the doctors so not to impinge on their time or the time of their patients.
Practical Issues
Flexibility: The research methods need to be flexible and must be able to be adapted if necessary, for example, doctors may find it difficult to fit in focus groups in their busy schedule. If this is a problem then the five male doctors will be invited to take part in the interviews. The interview schedule will be adapted as necessary.
Sampling: doctors may work at more than one hospital, if a name is picked more than once, the extra name(s) shall be disregarded and other names picked until there is the correct amount of individuals.
Bias: interviewer bias, that is, asking leading questions and poor interpretation, can lead to worthless results; using an interview schedule and having two researchers analysing the information will reduce this. This is an issue in both interviews and focus groups. A further problem (mainly with interviews) is agreements without protest. The participant may feel intimidated by the researcher and may respond with answers they feel the interviewer may want to hear. Building a trusting relationship with the participant and making them feel relaxed is a way to reduce this. The fact that the participants in this research are professionals may mean that this won’t occur as they could see themselves at the same (or higher level) as the researcher and so don’t feel inferior.
Interpretation of body language: the interpretation of the actions of participants in interviews and focus groups may be inaccurate and are only specific to that individual at that particular time, (Haralambos and Holborn, 1995). This information will only be used to support audio recorded information.
Interpretation of categories:
The main themes of the research chosen by the researchers during analysis may be inappropriate to the objectives and title of the research and may not actually be the main themes. To overcome this, an independent judge will analyse the data to provide an outside perspective. The reassessment of categories will also help prevent this problem, (Vaughn et al, 1994). The transcripts will also be offered to the participants to check the accuracy of the interpretation so to increase the authenticity of the research, (Silverman, 2005).
References
Bilton, T, Bonnet, K, Jones, P, Lawson, T, Skinner, D, Stanworth, M and Webster,
(2002) Introductory Sociology (4th edition) Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan.
Bruegal, I (1979) ‘Women as a reserve army of labour; a note on recent British experience’ cited in Haralambos, M and Holborn, M (1995) Sociology: Themes and Perspectives, London, Collins Educational.
Crompton, R and Harris, F (1998) ‘A reply to Hakim’ in British Journal of Sociology, Volume 49, Issue 1 pp 144 – 150.
Hakim, C (1995) ‘Five feminist myths about women’s employment’ in British Journal of Sociology, September 1995, Volume 46, Issue 3, pp 429 – 457.
Haralambos, M and Holborn, M (1995) Sociology: Themes and Perspectives (4th edition), London, Collins Educational.
Kreuger, K (1994) Focus Groups. A Practical Guide for Applied Research (2nd edition), London, Sage.
Mason, J (2002) Qualitative Researching, London, Sage.
McManus, I and Sproston, K (2000) Women in hospital medicine in the United Kingdom: glass ceiling, preference, prejudice or cohort effect? In Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 54, pp 10-16.
Patton, M (1990) Qualitative Evaluation and Research Methods, Newbury Park, Sage.
Sarantakos, S (1998) Social Research, (second edition) Basingstoke, Macmillan Press.
Silverman, D (2005) Doing Qualitative Research (2nd edition) London, Sage.
Tesch, B.J, Wood, H.M, Helwig, A.L and Nattinger, A.B (1995) Promotion of women physicians in academic medicine. Glass ceiling or sticky floor? In Journal of American Medical Association, 273(13):1022-5.
Turkel, AR (2004) The hand that rocks the cradle rocks the boat: the empowerment of women in Journal of the American Academy of Psychoanalysis & Dynamic Psychiatry. 32(1):41-53: discussion 55-7.
Vaughn, S, Shay Schumm, J and Sinagub, J (1996) Focus Group Interviews in Education and Psychology, London, Sage.
Walby, S (1990) Theorizing Patriarchy, Oxford, Blackwell.
Whitehead, S (2002) Men and Masculinities, Cambridge, Polity.
Wikipedia: A free online encyclopaedia, Link: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page
Reference Link: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarchy
