Elements in counseling process
Counseling involved two individuals; it’s a communication between the Counsellor and the counselee.
- Counsellor – a professionally trained person who can assist or help the counselee.
- Counselee – a person who seeks help or needs assistance.
Mutual respect, rapport and satisfactory relationship should be established. Counsellor should be friendly and cooperative with counselee. Counselee should have trust and confidence over the Counsellor. Counsellor should have thorough experience and sound knowledge with counseling process.
Elements that hinder counseling process
- Passing moral judgement on clients’ behavior of feelings.
- Taking more than you can handle
- Stereotype the client
- Make generalization and minimize the issue or compare it to other situations
- Ask questions for your interest or needs rather than those of clients
Need of counseling
To help the client to accept actual or impending changes that is resulting from stress. It involves psychological, emotional, intellectual and spiritual support. It provides information for the student on matters important to success.
- To encourage and develop special abilities and right attitude.
- To inspire successfully endeavour towards attainment.
- To assist the student in planning for educational and vocational choices.
- To help the student to work out a plan for solving his difficulties.
- Helps in the total development of the student.
- It helps is the proper choice of course according to the interest , aptitude and intelligence of the student.
- To help the student to grow, explore and maintain or develop their overall personality.
- To motivate the students for self employment.
ATTRIBUTES AND SKILLS REQUIRED OF A COUNSELOR
For effective counseling the counselor needs to demonstrate certain skills, attitudes and knowledge.
Pre-training Attributes:
- Self-awareness and understanding
- Good psychological health
- Sensitivity about resources, limitations and vulnerability of other persons.
- Open-mindedness
- Objectivity
- Trustworthiness
- Approachability
Inter-Training Attributes
- Interview setting and getting started
- Physical arrangement- chairs should face each other with leaning facility for both. The closeness of counselor helps in indicating the attentiveness & willingness.
- Greeting- A warm friendly greeting facilitate the helping process.
- Inviting the counselee to participate in counseling process.
- Maintaining eye contact.
- Problem focus.
- Identifying on important theme.
- Directing the theme towards a goal.
- Managing interaction with the individual.
- Restatement
- Interpretation
- Managing pauses and silence.
QUALITIES OF A COUNSELOR
- Interpersonal Relationship
- Friendly nature
- Gets along with others
- Sympathetic understanding
- Fairness, Sincerity, Tactfulness, Patience
- Sensitivity to the attitude of people
- Ability to maintain confidentiality
- Respect client’s abilities & needs
- Attentive listener
- Speaks in client’s language
- Shows careful concern, listens the demands and complaints of the client & family, then responding them in an effective and facilitating manner.
- Capacity for being trusted by others.
- Tolerance power, openness, empathy are ingredients of successful counseling.
- Accepts in interpersonal relationship.
- Caring & meeting the needs of individual based on humanistic philosophy.
- Shows matured behavior, integrated personality.
- Maintains emotional stability.
- Flexibility & adaptability
- Aware about one’s limitations.
- Mentally sound & healthy in all aspects, shows unbiased attitude in using coping mechanisms.
- Possesses a sense of worth & sense of humor.
- Knowledge of self.
- Freedom from withdrawing tendency.
- Able to accept criticism.
- Scholastic Potentialities and Educational Background
- Should possess relevant as well as broad knowledge & efficient skills: able to decide the method to be adopted in counseling process.
- Should be motivated & committed.
- Aware of policies, beliefs, misconceptions and rumors existing within the local community.
- Highly cultured social interests.
- Intelligent to tackle the situation effectively.
- Scholastic aptitude.
- Respects the facts.
- Possess common sense & uses good judgment when tackling issues.
- Will have master’s degree in the essential area of guidance programme.
- Health & Personal Appearance
- Pleasing voice
- Pleasing appearance
- Freedom from annoying mannerisms
- Poise & neatness
- Vitality & endurance.
- Ability to stimulate & lead others.
- Reinforce important information.
- Directs the counselee, the ways to solve the problems & guide him to choose appropriate one with his own decisions.
- Good character
- Wholesome/ positive philosophy of life
- Civic sense
- Integrated personality
- Possesses an acceptable value system
- Faith in human values
- Shows significant spiritual & religious values.
Principles of counseling
Motivational counseling is a new approach to helping patients with substance abuse. It is based on the concept that motivation for change is not static but dynamic and that the clinician can influence change by developing a therapeutic relationship that respects and build on the patient’s autonomy and by making the patient a partner in the change process.
Five basic principles are used with this approach:
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Support self efficiency – this requires a clinician to recognize the patient’s strengths and bring these to the force. It involves supporting hope, optimism and the feasibility of accomplishing changes.
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Role with resistance- Resistance is a signal that the patient views the situation differently.There is 4 types of resistances:
- Arguing
- Interrupting
- Denying
- Ignoring
The clinician job is to ask questions in a way that helps the patient to understand & work through resistance.
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Avoid arguments and direct confrontation- Trying to convince a patient that a problem exist or the change is needed ,could precipitate even more resistance arguments can rapidly generate into a power struggle and do not enhance motivation for beneficial.
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Develop discrepancy between patient goal or values and their current behavior- Focus patient’s attention on how current behavior differs from behavior described as ideal or desired.
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Express empathy through reflecting listening- This communicates respect for and acceptance of patient’s and their feelings. It also establishes a safe and open environment that helps in examining issues and exploring personal reasons for change.
Some other principles are:
- Emphasizes thinking with the individual.
- Maintain relationship of trust and confidence.
- Avoid dictatorial attitude.
- Client’s needs are to be put first.
- Everyone participating in the counseling process must feel comfortable.
- The client’s family members and significant influencing personnel must be included in the counseling.
- Skills of warmth, friendliness, openness and empathy are ingredients of successful counseling process.
- Counsellor has to listen attentively, answer questions objectively, and reinforce important information.
- Maintain dignity of individual as individual is primary concern in counseling.
- Concerned with “total individual”.
Techniques of counseling
The basic techniques of counseling are:
- Getting the environment right
- Getting the listening right
- Asking the right questions
- Being Affirming
- Limiting the advice
- How to make it work
Getting the environment right: If you feel that it is safe to do so ,create a space to talk which is private and quick and where you know you will be free from interruptions(always seek advice of a colleague about the safety is appropriateness of this action).where possible make sure that there is appropriate ventilation.
Getting the listening right: There are some ways of encouraging a child or young person to talk is to make sure that they know you are listening and you can do this by just:
- Being attentive showing with your body language.
- Sometimes facing the child/making good eye contact.
- Sitting by side.
- Not interrupting in between while talking.
- Occasionally nodding or quietly saying “yes”
- Reporting back summary of discussion
- Calm & unhurried behave.
Asking the right questions: Try to ask more open ended questions than close ended questions.E.g how are you feeling today?
Being Affirming: To encourage the flow of conversation it is important that you show respect by taking an accepting attitude. The message you are trying to get across is “I have respect for your opinions and your views of the world at this present time”.
Limiting the advice: Try to limit direct advice that you give during your conversation. This is more important for older then younger children who elderly need more guidance. This is a specially the case at the beginning of a piece of problem solving conversation e.g. It is commonly better to start with “what do you think is the best thing for you to do next?” Than to say, is….”
How to make it work: Do not turn your conversation into an interrogation. However good you are at counseling some children/young people will not be ready to talk to you or want to talk to you. This does not mean that you have failed. It might be that they will talk later or that they will talk to a colleague of yours who they know better or a colleague of the opposite sex.
Phases of Counselling
Phase 1; Establishing relationship
Phase 2: Assessment
Phase 3: setting goals
Phase 4: Intervention
Phase 5: termination and follow-up
Phase 1: Establishing relationship
It is the core phase in the process of Counselling. It affects the progress of the process and acts as a curative agent in itself. It includes each factor as respect, trust, and a sense of psychological comfort.
Phase 2: Assessment
Individuals are encouraged to talk about their problems: counsellor asks questions, collects information, seeks his/her views, observes and possibly help the individual to clearly state his/her problem.
Phase 3: Setting Goals
The major purpose of this phase is to provide direction to the individual and Counsellor. It involves making commitments to set of conditions, a course of action, or an outcome. Setting goals helps us to know how well counselling is working and when counselling may be concluded.
Phase 4: Interventions
After setting the goals question is “how shall we accomplish these goals”? The intervention used will depend upon the approach used by the counsellor, the problem and the individual. Hence the choice of intervention is a process of adaptation and the counsellor should change the intervention when selected intervention is not working.
Phase 5: Termination
All counselling should have an ultimate criterion a successful termination. It must be done without destroying the accomplishments gained and should be done with sensitivity, intention and by fading.
Types of counselling
- Directive counselling/counsellor centered
The counselor is the central figure and plays more active role, where he directs the counselee to take steps in order to resolve his conflicts. It believes in the limited capacity of the client. It emphasizes on the cognitive and intellectual aspects of the problem and therefore efforts are made to solve the problem as such and not to help client attaining his full growth.
The client makes the decision, but the counsellor does all that he can to get the counselee make a decision in keeping with his diagnosis. He tries to direct the thinking of the counselee by informing, explaining, interpreting and advising.
2. Non- Directive counselling
It rest upon the fundamental respect for the individual’s belief in person ability to solve personal problems with the aid of a sympathetic listener.
Client i.e. the counselee is the pivot, he takes an active part in the process of therapy. He gains insight into his problem with the help of the counsellor. He only decides and takes necessary action.
The counsellor’s role is passive. This type of counselling is a growth experience. The goal is the independence and integration of the client rather than the problem oriented. The counsellor creates an atmosphere in which the client can work out his own understanding. The emotional aspects are concentrated more; it leads to a voluntary choice of action.
3. Motivational Counselling
It involves discussing the feelings and incentives with the client .The counsellor can encourage to establish helping relationship to avoid despair feelings and work through the feelings of their motivation.
If the client shows unwillingness to participate in learning activities, counsellor has to assess any factor from the past or present that might be negatively influencing motivation for learning.
Motivational counselling helps the client to work towards health promotion.
4. Psychological counselling
They rely on conversation between the client and the therapist. This may take in the form of questions and answers, reconstruction of past history or discussion of current difficulties. It consists of an emotion-laden monologue by the patient or the therapist make an initiative in making the patient to speak out his repressed feelings and emotions.
5. Marriage counselling
Advice and help will be provided in selecting the spouse. To identify positive aspects of relationship as well as those cause conflicts. To solve the problems related to their marital problems and marital relationship. It is directed to help the couples to talk constructively about problems in marital relationships.
6. Problem–solving Counselling
Suitable for patients with reaction to stress and with minor affective problems. The patient is helped to
- Identify and list problems that are causing distress
- Consider what practicable courses of action might solve or reduce each problem.
- Select 1 problem ant try out the courses of action that appears most feasible and to succeed.
7. Behavioral counselling
To change specific and particular behavior and to treat the behavioral disorders, behavioral counselling will be effective. It is based on the principle’ learning by conditioning’.
8. Individual counselling
Counselling may be precede by an interview, the counsellor will try to establish rapport and structuring has to be done so that client understands what to expect at counselling.It will be use to get information, to give information and to change behavior.
9. Group counselling
New ways of working to help people, where peer group values are more important e.g. adolescents.
The individual may gain an insight and understanding into his own problems through listening to others, who will be discussing their difficulties, ideas, values may become more understandable and acceptable.
The counselling group helps the individual to change and encourage his desires, abilities through their relationship in an accepting and meaningful social situation.
10. Short term counseling
Used in situational crisis in which disruption of life occurred.
It focuses or concern of the client or family. It can be relatively minor concern or a major crisis but whatever the situation, it needs immediate action.
Counselors will assist the client and guides problem solving in a systematic way or decision making.
In crisis situations the counselor can share problem solving abilities with the client.
11. Long term counseling
It extends over a prolonged period of time. (Daily, weekly, or monthly basis)
It focuses for the client who experiences developmental crisis may need long term counseling.e.g women with menopause: women with breast feeding.
12.Electic counseling
The counselor will make use of both directive & non directive counseling which may be considered useful for the purpose of modifying the ideas & attitude of counselee. It puts check on the client’s emotional expression whenever it is in his interest.
The techniques are elective in nature because they have been derived from all sources of counseling, selecting the best and leaving out hat what is least required.
It is possible for the counselor to alternate between directive & non directive methods even in the same interview without disrupting the non directive permissive relationship with the client.
13. Clinical counseling
The diagnosis & treatment of mind functional maladjustments and to find better adjustment & self-expression.
A relationship primarily individual, face to face between counselor & client. The study of the individual as a unique whole; specific behaviors are observed and specific traits may be inferred but the goal is particular individual. It describes the problem and also suggests the solution or remedies for the problem. It includes training, actual practice in diagnosis, treatment, prevention and research.
14. Student counseling
It is concerned with helping the student to solve his problems pertaining to the choice of educational institutions, courses, methods of study, adjustment, vocational choices ,etc.It deals with total personality of the individual, it connects directly to the needs of the individual, in a personal contact situation.
15. Placement counseling
Counselor will advise to the counselees in regard to jobs & posts which are suitable for the client depend upon his abilities, attitudes and interests.
16. Psychotherapeutic counseling
Psychologically trained individuals consciously attempts verbally to assist the other persons to modify emotional attitudes with subject are aware of the personality reorganization through which he is undergoing.
17. Vocational counseling
Procedure centered about he problem of selecting a vocation and preparing for it. If any problem rises within the specified vocation, necessary steps or advices will be carried out to solve those problems. It gives greater control over his own future actions. Counselor will help the client to improve his allround personality development & helps the individual to develop skills and efficiency, mastery over the vocation so that the counselee will be best among his co-employees in his profession.
18. Dietary counseling
Helping the individual to learn more about diet & nutritional needs. Helps the person become more aware of the role, foods plays in providing, maintaining & building health and strength. Minimizing some of the discomforts of disease.
It is easier to accept diet modifications if the person understands the benefits of good nutrition.
Instruct the person about good nutrition in many ways. Arrange planned conversations with the individual during which you can discuss dietary issues. Explore the specific needs of the client and deal with questions related to the workability of a special diet. When the person makes choices from the hospital menu, provide social guidance in appropriate meal planning. Discuss comparative food values.
19. Interpersonal Counseling
Changes in life events. Sources of persistent distress in the family or place of work. Current difficulties in relationships .
Patients are encouraged to consider whether there may be better ways of coping with these difficulties.
20. Bereavement counseling
It focuses on working through the stages of grief. It combines an opportunity for emotional release including the expression of despair and anger. Develop a therapeutic relationship. Clients or families needing counseling include persons who must adjust to changes in lifestyle body image as the disease progresses. During life threatening illnesses clients and families need counseling to cope with the possibility of death.
The bereaved persons need to talk about the loses, to express feelings of sadness, guilt and anger. To understand the normal course of grieving. It is helpful to warn a bereaved person about unusual experiences. E.g feeling, as if a dead persons were present ,illusions and hallucinations, otherwise these experiences may be alarming.
Genetic counseling
It is a clinical genetics services that grew out of a need for professionals who could provide genetics information, education and support to individuals and families with ongoing or potential genetic health concerns (Lea et al, 1998).Introduction of the term ‘genetics counseling’ is usually credited to Sheldon Reed, who first used the term in 1947, when he was teaching, counseling and doing research in genetics at the university of Minnesota.
Definition:
Genetics counseling is a communication process that deals with the human problems associated with the occurrence or risk of occurrence of a genetic disorder in a family.
This process involves an attempt by one or more appropriately trained person to help the individual or family to:
- Comprehend the medical facts including the diagnosis, probable cause of disorder and the available management.
- Appreciate the ways heredity contributes to the disorder and the risk of recurrence in specified relatives.
- Understand alternatives for dealing with the risk of recurrence in specified relatives.
- Choose a course of action that seems to them appropriate in view of their risk, their family goals and their ethical and religious standards and act in accordance with that decision.
- Make the best possible adjustment to the disorder in an affected family member and/or to the risk of recurrence of that disorder.
Patients seeking Genetic counseling:
The reasons people seek genetic counseling vary. People may or may not be affected themselves. Those who seek counseling commonly fall into the following categories:
- People who want to want to know if they have a genetic disorder or if they are carriers of a genetic disorder.
- People who are concerned about being at risk for producing a child with a specific genetic disorder.
- People who are planning parenthood and want to know about the implications of a genetic disorder afflicting one or both partners.
- People seeking help in making a decision about diagnosis, selective abortion, artificial insemination by the donor or adoption.
- People seeking help foe a child affected with a genetic disorder.
Estimation of risk:
Most families with a history of genetic disease want an answer to the following question: What is the chance that our future children will have this disease? Because the answer to this question may have profound implications for individual, family members and the family as a whole, health care professional must be able to answer this question as accurately as they can in a timely manner. In some cases, estimation of risk is straight forward, in other cases, it becomes rather complicated. Because of this, health care professionals should be prepared to refer families with a history of genetic disorder to genetic professionals if they are all at all unsure.
ROLE OF NURSE
The role of nurse in genetic disorder continues to expand .Some nurses will play a key role in the identification of families in need of genetic counseling and they collaborate with other health care professionals to make referrals to specialists in genetics. Other nurses take a more active role in genetic counseling. E.g. these nurses might provide appropriate genetics information that family members receive during counseling sessions or from other sources such as public library, internet or support groups, help families manage the ongoing challenges associated with living with genetic disorder, make referrals to sport groups and national organizations and provide long term follow up of families affected by genetic conditions.
Most important of all nursing function is to provide emotional support during all aspects of the counseling process. Feelings that are generated under the real or imagined threat posed by a genetic disorder are as varied as the people being counseled. Responses may include a variety of stress reactions, such as apathy, denial, anger, hostility,fear ,embarrassment ,grief and loss of self esteem. Guilt and self blame are universal reactions. Many look on the disorder as a stigma especially if the disorder is visible to others. Old wives tales, superstitions and long held misconceptions may influence families’ reactions to a genetic disorder.
FAMILY COUNSELING
The family movement in mental health was started in the seventies and has since grown tremendously. Two motivational forces were behind the family movement: the deinstitutionalization of mentally ill, which left families unprepared to care for their family member with a mental illness, and the tendency for health professionals and others blame parents for mental illnesses in the family.
Severely recent policy reports have served to educate professionals, policy makers and lay persons about the needs of persons with mental illness and their family and about the problems of the mental health delivery system. Organizations have also been formed to serve families of the mentally ill. They are committed to provide support, advocacy, research and public awareness.
Family therapy, also referred to as couple and family therapy and family systems therapy, is a branch of that works with and couples in to nurture change and development. It tends to view change in terms of the of interaction between family members. It emphasizes family relationships as an important factor in psychological health.
Nurses encounter many different types of families in their work. There are four dimensions of parent status that can be used to describe families in contemporary society. These include biological ties, marital status, and sexual orientation & gender roles.
PARENT STATUS IN THE CONTEMPORARY FAMILY
The various family configurations are the backdrop from which to assess to treat family dysfunction and in and of themselves are not necessarily the cause of family dysfunction. There are other ways in which families differ as well. Many families face special challenges because a member has experienced something out the ordinary. This includes families with a mentally ill member, families who have a member with HIV or the significant health related problem, families with genetically linked problems, families affected by violence or abuse from within or outside of the household, natural disasters, poverty or stigma. A well functioning family can shift roles, levels of responsibilities and patterns of interactions as it experiences stressful life changes.
CHARACTERISTICS OF FUNCTIONAL FAMILIES
A functional family can rebalance , even when faced with various life stressors and functions of all members is restored and symptoms fade. Characteristics of such a family include (Walsh ,1993) the following :
- It completes important life cycle tasks.
- It has a capacity to tolerate conflicts and adapt to the adverse circumstances without long term dysfunction.
- Emotional contact is maintained across generations and between the family members without blurring necessary levels of authority.
- Over closeness is avoided and distance is not used to resolve the problems between them.
- Each twosome is expected to resolve the problems between them.
- Differences between family members are encouraged to promote personal growth and creativity.
- Children are expected to assume the age-appropriate responsibility and to enjoy age-appropriate privileges negotiated with their parents.
- There is open communication and interactions among family members.
CHARACTERISTICS OF FAMILY PATHOLOGY
At the opposite end of the continuum are dysfunctional families. Some of the more common dysfunctional family pattern includes the following:
- The overprotective mother and distant father.(distant through work, alcohol, or physical absence).
- The over functioning “superwife” or “superhusband” and the underfunctioning, passive, dependant and compliant spouse.
- The spouse who maintains peace at any price and denies difficulties in marriage but suddenly feels wronged and self righteous when the mate is discovered to be in legal trouble or having an affair.
- The child who evidence poor peer relationship at school while attempting to parent younger siblings to compensate for ineffective or emotionally overwhelmed parents.
- The family with a substance abusing mother.
- The family subjected to physical, emotional or sexual abuse by one of its members.
Working with families
Contact with patient’s families is an essential part of nursing care. Nurses have always made intuitive observation about functional and dysfunctional family dynamics. All nurse use various non clinical techniques such as psychoeducational programs developed from a competent paradigm in order to work competently with the families.
Competence paradigm:
The competence paradigm provide a significant shift in how family interventions are thought about(Marsh, 2000) The competency paradigm values empowerment instead of a dependency producing helper-helpee ideology and stresses the importance of treating people as collaborators who are masters of their own fate and capable of making healthy changes. The competence paradigm emphasis on the following points:
- Focus is on growth producing behavior rather than treatment of problems or prevention of negative outcomes.
- Promotion and strengthening of individual and family functioning occurs by fostering the acquisition of prosocial, self-sustaining, self-efficacious and other adaptive behavior.
- Definition of the relationship between the help seeker and help giver is a cooperative partnership that assumes joint responsibility.
- Promotion of the family’s use of natural support networks.
In this framework it is expected that families will play a major role in deciding what is important to them, what options they will choose to achieve their goals and whether they will accept help that is offered to them.
Psychoeducation Program
Psychoeducational Programs are designed primarily for education and support. They are the result of the emergence of the family self-help movement in psychiatry. The program approach is mainly educational and pragmatic and its aim is to improve the course of the family’s member’s illness, reduce relapse rates and improve patient and family functioning.
A comprehensive program for working with families should include the following components:
- A didactic component that provides information about mental illness and mental health system.
- A skill component that offers training in communication, conflict resolution, problem solving assertiveness, behavioral management and stress management.
- An emotional component that provides opportunities for ventilation, sharing and mobilizing resources.
- A family process component that focuses on coping with mental illness and sequeale for the family.
- A social component that increases uses of informal and formal support network.
TECHNIQUES
Family therapy uses a range of and other techniques including:
The number of sessions depends on the situation, but the average is 5-20 sessions. A family therapist usually meets several members of the family at the same time. This has the advantage of making differences between the ways family members perceive mutual relations as well as interaction patterns in the session apparent both for the therapist and the family. These patterns frequently mirror habitual interaction patterns at home, even though the therapist is now incorporated into the family system. Therapy interventions usually focus on relationship patterns rather than on analyzing impulses of the or of individuals as a therapist would do - although some schools of family therapy, for example psychodynamic and intergenerational, do consider such individual and historical factors (thus embracing both linear and circular causation) and they may use instruments such as the to help to elucidate the patterns of relationship across generations.
The distinctive feature of family therapy is its perspective and analytical framework rather than the number of people present at a therapy session. Specifically, family therapists are relational therapists: They are generally more interested in what goes on between individuals rather than within one or more individuals, although some family therapists -- in particular those who identify as , , intergenerational,, or experiential family therapists -- are as interested in individuals as in the systems those individuals and their relationships constitute.
Family therapists tend to be more interested in the maintenance and/or solving of problems rather than in trying to identify a single cause. Some families may perceive cause-effect analyses as attempts to allocate blame to one or more individuals, with the effect that for many families a focus on causation is of little or no clinical utility.
Peplau’s Theory
Peplau has given four phases of nurse-patient relationship i.e. orientation, identification, exploitation and resolution. And during these phases nurse has to perform variety of roles and from which one of the most important role is as a counsellor.
As we know all the paradigm of Peplau’s theory include 4 concepts.
Peplau’s Theory
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Person :A developing organism that tries to reduce anxiety caused by needs
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Environment : Existing forces outside the organism and in the context of culture
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Health: A word symbol that implies forward movement of personality and other ongoing human processes in the direction of creative, constructive productive, personal and community living.
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Nursing: A significant therapeutic interpersonal process. It functions cooperatively with other human process that makes health possible for individuals in communities
Peplau (1952) said that “counselling in nursing have to do with helping the client to remember and to fully understand what is happening to him in the present situation so that the experience can be integrated with rather than disassociated from other experiences in life”.
Counselling Role of Nurse
According to Peplau’s : in counselling , counsellor is one who through the use of certain skills and attitudes , aids another in recognizing , facing , accepting and resolving problems that are interfering with other persons ability to live happily and effectively . Counselling functions in the nurse patient relationship by the way nurse responds to the patient demands. The purpose of interpersonal technique is to help the patient remember to understand fully what is happening to him/her in the present situation so that experience can be integrated rather than dissociated from other experiences in life.
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Neeraja KP,Textbook of Nursing education,2nd edition,jaypee pulishers,Pp463-487.
- Basavanthappa B T,Nursing Theories ,ist edition ,jaypee publishers,Pp 109-119
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Stuart and Laria ,Principles & practices of Psychiatric Nursing,8th edition,mosby publishers,Pp 793-794
- Parthasarathy A, Text book of paediatric, 3rd edition, jayppe publishers, Pp764
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Bobak et.al,Maternal nursing,4th edition,mosby publishers,Pp85
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Sadock’s and Kaplan,Synopsis of psychiatry ,7th edition,Williams and Wilkins publishers,Pp36-37
