In addition the body can suffer physically from the effects of stress. Stress can cause an increase acid in the stomach which can lead to ulcers, an increase in catecholamine which increases blood clot formation and therefore lead to more chance of heart attack. Heart attacks are more likely due to an increase in cardio vascular response and increases chance of injury or damage to the arteries via plaque and fat deposits. Stress increases corticosteroids which can lead to arthritis. Increase in catecholamine can lead to kidney disease, and stress also affects the immune system which will result in more infection. (Ogden, 1996:210)
There are many different theories that explain how and why stress occurs. Original work on stress was perceived from a biological model, stress was seen as a physical response only and severe stress could lead to the break down of any organism. (Resick, 2001: 58) Cannon in 1932 described the first theory when he labelled the famous fight or flight response. (Ogden, 1996:286) It was Seyle in 1956 who first defined stress as a pattern of adaptive responding which involved neuroendocrine mechanisms. Chronic activation of these mechanisms leads to exhaustion of the organism and the inability to cope. (Pitts and Phillips, 1998:50).
Psychological factors started to be recognised in the 1960’s and 1970’s and these included psychological upset and perception of threat. (Resick 2001: 58) Life events theory was developed by Holmes and Rahe in 1967. A schedule of life events was made and comparisons between peoples stress levels and health status was measured. (Ogden, 1996:202) Most theories of stress emphasis that stress is the outcome of a cognitive process in which a threat or challenge is perceived and the ability to control this threat or challenge is then assessed. The basic control models first defined by Lazarus in the 1970`s link stress to controllability. Studies have shown that lack of control over an event can influence the perceived stress. It has been found that perceived control is just as important as actual control. Predictability also seems to influence ones perception of control and then the outcome of a stressful situation. (Pitts and Phillips 1998:51) Lazarus and Folkman suggested in 1987 that self efficacy was a powerful factor for mediating the stress response; confidence can result in physiological changes that reduce the stress response. (Ogden, 1996:207)
In the Conservation of Resources theory (COR) it was Hobfall who originally proposed that psychological stress is a reaction to loss or threatened loss of an individual’s resources. These resources can be categorised into groups including objects, conditions, personality characteristics (skills) and energies (money and time). He assumed that people are motivated to gain, keep and protect these resources. Any threat on these will result in stress. Stress can even be increased by trying to prevent the loss or even by trying to obtain these resources. (Resick 2001:59)
Later theories, for example Karasek and Theorell’s theory in 1990 emphasises that stress is conceptualised as a product of the individual’s capacity for self control. Successful coping and self management eradicates stress, stress related illness is due to long term failed self management (Ogden, 1996:287). Coping with stress may reduce its impact on physical and mental well being. Coping represents environmental, behavioural and psychological efforts to deal with excessive stress and its correlates. Unsuccessful coping will inevitably result in health issues. (Mitchell and Everly, 2001:28) Individuals that have suffered excessive stress can use maladaptive coping strategies such as drugs, alcohol, violence, and social withdrawal. These are self defeating and health eroding coping tactics that will lead to long term problems. (Mitchell and Everly, 2001:27) Potential known threats require adaptation of behaviour to reduce or avoid harm. These interventions are known as coping strategies or coping behaviours. These behaviours can vary from something simple like putting on a coat when one is cold to the denial of a terminal illness. (Lovallo, 1997:78). The level of coping and control available to an individual will determine the stressfulness of an event and the physical reactions to it. (Lovallo,1997:120). Many factors seem to affect our ability to cope with stressors; these include loss of control, predictability, outlet for frustration and the support network. As highlighted with Seyles many experiments with rats, and used as an example by Joshi (2005:165), in one experiment one rat was given electric shocks and had nothing else in the cage. Another rat was given electric shocks but this rat had a piece of wood to gnaw on in the cage. The rat with the wood to gnaw on after the shock had a lower stress response. It was suggested that this was due to the rat having an outlet for his frustration. Similar experiments using rats showed that when electric shocks were given in a predicted way the stress response was also lower. (Joshi 2005:176).
Research by Deniz (2006) shows a significant positive relationship between life satisfaction and problem focused coping. An individual can cope with stress better if he/she has life satisfaction. Iwasaki (2006) experimented with the role of leisure and coping with stress. The study found that the role of leisure is very important as a means of coping with stress. Suggestions were made by Deniz to use leisure pursuits in stress management recommendations given by healthcare professionals. Stress management is the key for today’s challenges. One point is to stop the sympathetic nervous system from staying chronically aroused. Techniques that activate the relaxation responses are favourable. Some basic principles have been found to have a significant affect on stress responses. Exercise for example lowers the effect of norepinephrine, improves the ability to fight infection, reduces the negative effects of stress including suppression of cell division, decreases cytokines and increases the production of stress proteins. Exercise not only defuses a stressful situation, it helps fight future stress and reduces the chance of depression. A study on adults over the age of 70 done by the University of California showed that those who exercised regularly had the best moods ten years later. (Joshi, 2005:174)
To reduce stress and its effects there are many things that can be done, as mentioned exercise is a physical change , other physical changes include meditation, nutrition and diet adjustments., (Cooper and Palmer, 2000:81-83)
Relaxation techniques, massage and breathing exercises have been proven to have positive results for reducing stress symptoms. (Joshi, 2005:175-176) Psychological changes include new thinking techniques and imagery. Behavioural changes maybe beneficial, especially making more use of social support, time management and assertiveness. (Cooper and Palmer, 2000:81-83) Stress management needs to be covered from several angels. Mitchell and Everly (2001:25-27) show a good overall process for stress management; Firstly avoiding the stressor itself or reducing exposure to it maybe obvious but the most powerful means of reducing stress. Problem solving and time management are useful interventions here. Stimulant intake should be kept to a minimum. If the stressor can not be removed or reduced then cognitive therapies have been known to have powerful results on stress, anxiety and depression. Cognitive based strategies work on changing the way an individual appraises or interprets a situation. Finding a silver lining in a stressor or using it to learn a valuable lesson, are examples of ways of thinking that can help. Mitchel and Everly (2001:25-27) continue with emphasising the proven benefits of relaxation responses which can be achieved by meditation, deep breathing exercise, hypnosis and other techniques. Finally having a way to ventilate the response to stress is very effective. Exercise is a way to do this.
To conclude stress is seen as a transaction between the environment and the individual’s perception of it and the challenges that they are presented with. (Pitts 6 Phillips 1998:50) Summarising, there are many theories regarding stress from biological to psychological. Most of them agree that the way an individual sees a situation determines how stressful it may be to that individual. Certain adaptations will be made to cope with the situation. This adaptation can be a physical behaviour change or a psychological one. Different variables seem to affect the ability of an individual to cope. These range from social support to life satisfaction. Ultimately lifestyle seems to be an important factor when considering the effect of stressful events and reducing the health related problems associated with stress. Excessive stress and the inability or lack of coping techniques will ultimately lead to further problems. Stress management includes a variety of techniques to reduce the harmful effects of stress.
References
Deniz, M. (2006). The relationships among coping with stress, life satisfaction, decision making styles and decision self esteem. Social Behaviour and Personality, 34 (9), 1161-1170
Iwasaki, Y. (2006) Counteracting stress through leisure coping: A prospective health study. Psychology, Health & Medicine, 11(2):209-220.
Joshi, V. (2005) Stress from burnout to balance. London : Sage Publications Ltd.
Lovallo, W. (1997). Stress & Health. London: Sage Publications Ltd.
Mitchell, J. and Everly, G. (2001) Critical incident stress debriefing. 3rd ed. Maryland: Chevron Publishing Corporation.
Ogden, J. (1996) Health Psychology. Buckingham: Open University Press
Pitts, M. and Phillips, K. (eds.) (1998) The psychology of health an introduction. London: Routledge.
Resick, P. (2001) Stress and Trauma. East Sussex: Psychology Press Ltd.
Tucker, L. (2000) An introductory guide to Anatomy & Physiology. Cambridge: Holistic Therapy Books.
Waugh, A. and Grant, A. (2001) Ross and Wilson Anatomy & Physiology in Health and Illness. 9th Ed. London: Churchill Livingston
