How did the training and organization of the Roman army make it as effective as it was?
Introduction
The Roman army is still admired today by historians and many others alike. How far advanced technologically the Romans were over 2000 years ago still amazes many people today. They built roads that a still used today, their baths are still admired with many still standing and much of today's archaeology dates back to Roman and Greek principals. The Roman army itself was the most feared army of that period and it too is a cause of fascination. Thankfully, due to the Romans writing a lot down, there are many sources (unlike in the "Dark Ages" for example) available to study how the Roman army worked. In this project, the aim is to find out how the training and organization of the army made it as effective as it was.
How did the training and organization
of the Roman army
make it as effective as it was?
When the Roman army was at its peak, during the 1st and 2nd century AD, it was too strong for most of the other forces to overcome. In this project I aim to show how two parts of the Roman army: a) its training b) its organization, helped make it so effective.
The Roman army was an attractive occupation at that time. This is an important point to note. Although you ran the risk of being killed, soldiers were paid quite well (248 drachmas/year for cavalrymen in AD 81 according to Quintus Julius Proculus' account); did not have to fight that often (in fact in some times and places in the Roman army they spent more time doing peace time activities than fighting). They were given a large pension when they retired (according to Dio they received either between 3000 denarii and 5000 denarii, depending on the emperor, or could receive a large portion of land, usually 20 by 20 actus) and had the chance to travel around the known world. If you were a member of the auxilium then when you completed your service you would be given Roman citizenship. Therefore, the vast majority of the soldiers in the army were there by choice. This therefore meant that the soldier's morale was kept high and mutinies were rare.
A key reason for the army's success was the training the legionaries received. The training was so hard that the soldiers became well disciplined and very fit. They were trained to such a high level that most forces they came up against were swept away; this is illustrated in the following passage:
"They [the new recruits to the army] are also taught not to cut with their swords but to thrust. The Romans find it so easy to beat people who use their swords to cut rather than thrust that they laugh in their faces."
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A key reason for the army's success was the training the legionaries received. The training was so hard that the soldiers became well disciplined and very fit. They were trained to such a high level that most forces they came up against were swept away; this is illustrated in the following passage:
"They [the new recruits to the army] are also taught not to cut with their swords but to thrust. The Romans find it so easy to beat people who use their swords to cut rather than thrust that they laugh in their faces."
Vegetius, A Book About Military Affairs
The method of thrusting their sword rather than cutting allowed the soldiers much more manoeuvrability with their sword and made it much less unwieldy in a tight situation. It would take far less time for the soldier to thrust his sword than wield it back and chop downwards onto the enemy.
A new recruit would have to learn to march at regulation pace for distances of up to 24 Roman miles (about 35km). Their physical training continued with swimming, running, jumping and by carrying heavy packs. After the recruits were physically strong enough, they were given weapon training. This training began initially with a wooden practice sword and a wicker shield. They were taught by attacking dummy targets with the tips of their swords and learnt to handle their shields in the correct way. Soon after a recruit began life as a Roman soldier, he was physically tough and had weapon control that was superior to most forces around Europe. He also had one other attribute that made him stand out from other soldiers in other forces. He was battle fit. This is explained in this passage:
"Their practice sessions are no less strenuous than real battles. Each soldier trains every day with all his energy as if in war. And therefore they bear the stress of battle with the greatest ease."
Josephus, A History of the Jewish War
No other force in the world at that time trained as hard as the Romans did. They trained as though they were in a battle, so that when they did come to an actual battle they would be fitter than their opponents and would know exactly what their specific task was and how they should do their task. They therefore had an advantage over their enemy before the battle had even begun. This shows that the organization of the Roman army made it more effective.
Discipline was also paramount to the success of the Roman army. The rules were strict and anyone found to be disobeying the rules was dealt with severely:
"The soldier who deserts to the enemy but then returns shall be tortured and condemned to wild animals or to the rack."
"The soldier who in battle does something prohibited by his commanding officer or does not obey orders is executed even if his actions are successful."
Both extracts from Modestinus, The Digest of Laws
This strict method of discipline ensured that very few soldiers would step out of line; in fact there are hardly any recorded mutinies. They would be very obedient to their commanding officer and disciplined. Also, as the punishments were laid down and made clear for everyone to see, this meant that soldiers and officers knew the results of their actions. This meant that soldiers could not complain about being unfairly punished, as the punishments were clearly defined. Josephus sums up the importance of absolute obedience:
"Absolute obedience to the officers creates an army which is well behaved in peacetime and which moves as a single body when in battle."
Josephus, A History of the Jewish War
The soldiers built up respect for their officers and trusted their decisions. As a result, nobody questioned the officers and the soldiers did as they were told.
Vegetius emphasises the importance of the army's strict discipline throughout his book. However he also shows that their success was also due to the selection of the recruits and organization of the training that the soldiers received, which is illustrated in the extract below:
"We owe our success against all other people to our skilful selection of recruits; to our teaching, as I mentioned earlier, of the use of weapons; to our hardening the soldiers with daily exercise; to our acquainting them in field manoeuvres with everything that can happen on the march and in battles; to our severe punishment of idleness."
Vegetius, A Book About Military Affairs
It was important that they were acquainted with field manoeuvres, as the men then knew exactly where to go and were strong tactically. They therefore did not encounter such problems as the British did at the Battle of Hastings in 1066. The selection of recruits made sure that the army recruited only the best men:
"Only men who stand 6 feet or at least 5 feet 10 inches are accepted for service in the cavalry or in the first cohorts of the legions."
Vegetius, A Book about Military Affairs
For attack formations, such as "the tortoise shell", having men of similar height was crucial as it was important that the shields were level and there were no gaps.
The hierarchy system also played an important role in making the army so effective. An order came from the top and reached the soldiers via the officers in higher positions than themselves. This made sure there was no confusion as only one person gave the orders. The Roman army had a strict power scheme in which everybody knew their place and who was higher or lower than them in the pecking order but at the same time was split into small enough numbers that intimacy was still possible.
The army was split up into legions. However, the exact number of legions varied over the years. The only certain fact is provided by the historian Tacitus in his review of the military situation in AD 23 when there were 8 legions on the Rhine; 3 in Spain; 2 in Africa; 2 in Egypt; 4 in Syria; 2 in Pannonia; 2 in Moesia and 2 in Dalmatia, making a total of 25 legions. This also illustrates the range of the Roman Empire, stretching from Northern Europe to Northern Africa to the Middle East. These legions were divided into ten cohorts. A cohort was made up of six centuries. A century was the size of ten contubernia. Finally, one contubernium was made up of eight or ten men, this figure varies depending on the size of the army under different emperors. All twenty-five of the legions were numbered and given names that related to something important or of significance for that legion.
Vegetius, when describing the Roman army of the 4th century AD, simplifies why the Roman army was better than anyone they came up against, explaining that the reasons the Romans won were due to their training, discipline and practice in war:
"We see that the Roman people have subjugated the whole world by no means other than thorough training in the use of weapons, strict discipline in the military camps, and practice in warfare."
Vegetius, A Book About Military Affairs
Overall, the Roman army was stronger than anybody else at that time, in all the crucial departments. They trained harder, they were more disciplined, were better prepared for warfare and the soldiers were more contented overall. The fascinating point to note about it all is that in between all the battles, they built towns and buildings that still stand today and are marvelled at by the people of today.
Bibliography
An account of a cavalryman stationed outside Alexandria, from AD 81.
Josephus: A History of the Jewish War
Tacitus: Annals
Vegetius: A Book about Military Affairs
Webster: The Roman Imperial Army
Rupert Rowling
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