Job analysis

• Yields information helpful in the recruitment, selection, and employment domains in such activities as communicating job requirements to job applicants, developing selection plans for KSAOs to focus on when staffing a job, identifying appropriate assessment methods to gauge applicants’ KSAOs, establishing hiring qualifications, and complying with relevant laws and regulations

2. A competency-based job analysis attempts to identify and describe job requirements in the form of general KSAOs required across a range of jobs; task and work context requirements are of little concern

• Results will be helpful primarily in identifying a common set of general KSAOs in which all applicants must be proficient, regardless of the specific job for which they are applying

3. A job rewards job analysis focuses on describing the extrinsic and intrinsic rewards that employees receive and experience on their jobs

• Most beneficial in recruitment activities such as identifying the types of applicants most likely to seek the types of rewards being offered, using recruitment methods that will best convey job rewards information to applicants, and creating effective recruitment advertising and communication programs.

• Job analysis and the information it provides serve as basic input to the totality of staffing activities for an organization.  
• Job analysis is a support activity to the various functional staffing activities
• Without thorough and accurate information about job requirements and rewards, the organization is greatly hampered in its attempts to acquire a workforce that will be effective in terms of HR outcomes such as performance, satisfaction, and retention

1. Job Requirements Job Analysis

• Job analysis begins by identifying the specific tasks and the job context for a particular job, and then the KSAOs necessary for performing these tasks within the work context are inferred0
• The task and job context information are recorded in a job description, whereas the KSAO requirements are placed into a job specification

1. Job Requirements Matrix

• Shows the key components of job requirements job analysis, each of which must be explicitly considered for inclusion in any job requirements job analysis
• Completion of the cell entries in the matrix represents the information that must be gathered, analyzed, synthesized, and expressed in usable written form
• A completed job requirements matrix serves as the basic informational source or document for any job in terms of its job requirements

2. Task Statements

• Job analysis begins with the development of task statements, whose objective is to identify and record a set of tasks that both includes all of the job’s major tasks and excludes non-relevant or trivial tasks.
• These statements are objectively written descriptions of the behaviors or work activities engaged in by employees in order to perform the job.

3. KSAOs        

• KSAOs are inferred or derived from knowledge of the tasks and task dimensions themselves
• The inference process requires that the analysis explicitly think in specific cause-and-effect terms

1. Knowledge

• A body of information (conceptual, factual, procedural) that can be applied directly to the performance of tasks
• It tends to be quite focused or specific in terms of job, organization, or occupation

2. Skill

• An observable competence for working with or applying knowledge to perform a particular task or closely related set of tasks
• Skill requirements are directly inferred from observation or knowledge of tasks performed

3. Ability

• An underlying, enduring trait of the person useful for performing a range of different tasks
• It differs from a skill in that it is less likely to change over time and is applicable across a wide set of tasks encountered on many different jobs
• Four general categories of abilities are commonly recognized: cognitive, psychomotor, physical, and sensory abilities

4. Other Characteristics

• This is a catchall category for factors that do not fit neatly into the K, S, and A categories.
• They are very important for even being able to enter the employment relationship (legal requirements), being present to perform the job (availability requirements), and having values consistent with organizational culture and values (character requirements)

• The KSAOs of a job may differ in their weight or contribution to task performance

• Their relative importance must be explicitly considered, defined, and indicated, otherwise, all KSAOs will be assumed to be of equal importance by default

4. Job Context

• A job requirements job analysis should include consideration of the job context and the factors that are important in defining it, because these factors may have an influence on tasks and KSAOs;
• Further, information about the factors may be used in the recruitment and selection of job applicants

5. Job Description and Job Specification

• It is common practice to express the results of job requirements job analysis in written job description and job specifications
• There are no standard formats or other requirements for either job descriptions or job specifications

1. A job description should usually include the following: job family, job title, job summary, task statements and dimensions, importance indicators, job context indicators, and date job analysis conducted
2. A job specification should usually include job family, job title, job summary, KSAOs (separate section each), importance indicators, and date conducted

6. Collecting Job Requirements Information

• Job analysis involves not only consideration of the types of information (tasks, KSAOs, and job context) to be collected but also the methods, sources, and processes to be used for such collection.

I.    Methods

• Prior Information

1. For any job, there is usually some prior information available about it that could and should be consulted.  Indeed, this information should routinely be searched for and used as a starting point for a job analysis.
2. There are many possible organizational sources of job information available, including current job description and specifications, job-specific policies and procedures, training manuals, and performance appraisals.  
3. Externally, job information may be available from other employers, as well as trade and professional associations.

• Also, job information is available commercially on the Web.

• Observation

1. Simply observing job incumbents performing the job is obviously as excellent way to learn about tasks, KSAOs, and context
2. It provides a thoroughness and richness of information unmatched by any other method.  

• It is also the most direct form of gathering information because it does not rely on intermediary information sources

• Interviews

1. Interviewing job incumbents and others, such as their managers
2. The interviewee has vast source of information about the job
3. The interview format allows the interviewer to explain the purpose of the job analysis, how the results will be used, thus enhancing likely acceptance of the process by the interviewees

• Task Questionnaire

1. A typical task questionnaire contains a lengthy list of task statements that cut across many different job titles and is administered to incumbents in these job titles
2. For each task statement, the respondent is asked to indicate:

• Whether or not the task applies to the respondent’s job
• Task importance

3. Advantages:

• Questionnaires are standardized in content and format
• They can contain considerable information from large numbers of people
• Economical to administer and score, and the availability of scores creates the opportunity for subsequent statistical analysis

• Task questionnaires are completed anonymously, thus enhancing respondent participation, honesty, and acceptance

• Combined Methods

1. Only in rare instances does a job analysis involve use of only a single method.  Much more likely is a “mix-and-match”, eclectic approach using multiple methods.  
2. This makes job analysis a more complicated process to design and administer than implied by a description of each of the methods alone.

Criteria for Choice of Methods

• Some explicit choices regarding methods of job analysis need to be made:

1. One set of choices involves decisions to use or not use a particular method of information collection (e.g. off-the-shelf or tailor-made)
2. A second set of choices involves how to blend together a set of methods that will all be used, in varying ways and degrees, in the actual job analysis.

II.   Sources to be Used

• Choosing sources of information involves considering who will be used to provide the information sought.

1. Job Analyst

• A job analyst is someone who, by virtue of job title and training, is available and suited to conduct job analyses and to guide the job analysis process.

2. Job Incumbents

• Job incumbents seem like a natural source of information to be used in job analysis, and indeed they are relied on in most job analysis systems
• They are familiar with the tasks, KSAOs and job context.

• They may become more accepting of the job analysis process and its results through their participation in it.

3. Supervisors

• Supervisors not only supervise employees performing the job to be analyzed but also have played a major role in defining it and later in adding/deleting job tasks
• Supervisors ultimately have to accept the resulting descriptions and specifications for jobs they supervise; inclusion of them as a source seems a way to ensure such acceptance

4. Subject Matter Experts

• SMEs bring particular expertise to the job analysis process, an expertise thought not to be available through standard sources.
• Previous jobholders (recently promoted employees), private consultants, customer/clients, and citizens-at-large for some public sector jobs.
• SMEs should have recent, firsthand knowledge of the job being analyzed.

5. Combined Sources

• Combination of sources, like combinations of methods, are most likely to be used in a typical job analysis and this is desirable.
• Each source has some potentially unique insight to contribute to job analysis, as well as some limitations
• Through a pooling of such sources and the information they provide, an accurate and acceptable job analysis is most likely to result

III.  Job Analysis Process

• Collecting job information through job analysis requires development and use of an overall process for doing so
• Unfortunately, there is no set or best process to be followed; the process has to be tailor-made to suit the specifics of the situation in which it occurs
• Key issues to be dealt with in the construction and operation of the process:

1. Purpose

• The purpose(s) of job analysis should be clearly identified and agreed on
• The organization should ask exactly what job information is desired and why
• Once the desired output and results of job analysis have been determined, the organization can then plan a process that will yield the desired results

2. Scope

• The issue of scope involves which job(s) to include in the job analysis
• Decisions about actual scope should be based on consideration of:

• the importance of the job to the functioning of the organization
• the number of job applicants and incumbents
• whether the job is entry-level and thus subject to constant staffing activity
• the frequency with which job requirements (both tasks and KSAOs) change
• the amount of time lapsed since the previous job analysis

3. Internal Staff or Consultant

• The organization may conduct the job analysis using its own staff, or it may procure external consultants.  This is a difficult decision to make because it involves not only the obvious consideration of cost but also many other considerations.

4. Organization and Coordination

• Any job analysis project, whether conducted by internal staff or external consultants, requires careful organization and coordination.  
• There are two key steps to take to help ensure that this is achieved.

• An organizational member should be appointed to function as a project manager for the total process.  The project manager should be assigned overall responsibility for the total project, including its organization and control.
• The roles and relationships for the various people involved in the project – HR staff, project staff, line managers, and job incumbents – must be clearly established.

5. Communication

• Clear and open communication with all concerned facilitates the job analysis process.  
• Job analysis will be thought of by some employees as analogous to an invasive, exploratory surgical procedure, which, in turn, naturally raises questions in their minds about its purpose, process, and results.

6. Work Flow and Time Frame

• Job analysis involves a mixture of people and paper in a process in which they can become entangled very quickly.
• The project manager could develop and adhere to a work flowchart that shows the sequential ordering of steps to be followed in the conduct of the job analysis.  
• This should be accompanied by a time frame showing critical completion dates for project phases, as well as a final deadline.

7. Analysis, Synthesis, and Documentation

• Once collected, job information must be analyzed and synthesized through use of various procedural and statistical means.  
• These should be planned in advance and incorporated into the workflow and time-frame requirements.  
• Likewise, provisions need to be made for preparation of written documents, especially job descriptions and job specifications, and their incorporation into relevant policy and procedure manuals.

8. Maintenance of the System

• Job analysis does not end with completion of the project.  Rather, mechanisms must be developed and put into place to maintain the job analysis and information system over time.
• This is critical because the system will be exposed to numerous influences requiring response and adaptation.
• Job analysis must be thought of and administered as an ongoing organizational process.

1. Competency-Based Job Analysis

• A competency is an underlying characteristic of an individual that contributes to job or role performance and to organizational success.
• Competencies specific to a particular job are the familiar KSAO requirements established through job requirements job analysis.
• Competency requirements may extend beyond job specific ones to those of multiple jobs, general job categories, or the entire organization.  These competencies are much more general or generic KSAOs, such as “technical expertise” or “adaptability”.
• A competency model is a combination of the several competencies deemed necessary for a particular job or role.

• This is a very new approach to identifying job requirements.
• This form of job analysis seeks to identify general competencies (KSAOs) necessary for all jobs because the competencies support the organization’s mission and goals.  Within work units, other general competencies (job spanning KSAOs) may also be established that cut across multiple jobs.  Potential techniques and processes for collecting competency information are suggested.

• Usage of competencies and competency models in staffing reflects a desire to:

• Connote job requirements in ways that extend beyond the specific job itself

• Describe and measure the organization’s workforce in more general, competency terms

• Design and implement staffing programs focused around competencies (rather than just specific jobs) as a way of increasing staff flexibility in job assignments.

2. Job Rewards Job Analysis

• Broadly speaking, every job has an array of associated rewards.  Some of these rewards are external to the job itself and the tasks that comprise the job, e.g. pay, benefits, promotion opportunities.  These are extrinsic rewards
• Other rewards are internal to the job itself.  They are usually a direct outgrowth of the tasks themselves and the feelings that an employee experiences while performing and completing the tasks, e.g. feelings of autonomy, utilization of skills, and achievement of tasks and related goals

.

• The job rewards matrix is suggested for use in a job rewards job analysis.  The matrix indicates a need to identify the extrinsic and intrinsic rewards offered by the job.
• It also requires indication of the rewards’ amounts, differences among employees, and stability.
• Instruments and processes for collecting the necessary information are still in their infancy, as is the formal incorporation and use of the information in staffing activities.