The exterior details of these tombs are very striking, and each stand out in their own way. The pyramid of Giza does this on a very grand scale, using ‘casing stones’, which caused the monument to shine brightly in the sun and even the moonlight. This beacon was able to be seen up to three hundred kilometres away, and it served as a reminder of who was buried there and their importance. The tomb of Agamemnon has similarities with both Egyptian and Roman tombs. It is similar to the pyramid, as its detail is also on a huge scale. But it has even more similarities to Stilicho’s sarcophagus. This is because it shows stone carvings which go from simple motifs, like that of spirals, to huge depictions of war or hunting scenes. These depictions are very Homeric as they contain visual similes like those used by Homer in the Odyssey. For example a warrior is depicted in the pursuit of an enemy, while beneath him a lion is seen stalking a deer. One interpretation of these designs is that the dead are taking part in their own funeral games. This then reflects the culture at the time, as it is showing how the ancient Mycenaeans (the forerunners of the Greeks) believed in honouring and respecting the dead through games.
The detail on the tomb of Stilicho is not on such a huge scale but it also reflects the culture at the time of his death. The stone carved details on his tomb depict scenes from the bible, but they have a pagan slant to them.
A good example of this is the central image of Jesus teaching his disciples, as while it is Jesus, he is sculpted in the earlier pagan image of the wise philosopher teaching his elders. This shows the transference from paganism to early Christianity in the Roman world. The sarcophagus also shows simple Greco-Roman motifs such as the swastika, supposedly symbolising the sun.
Unlike the other tombs, the pyramid at Giza is precisely located to be in line with the position of the stars. The pyramid is in alignment with the position of the stars b-Ursae minoris and z-Ursae majoris around three thousand years ago. This is because of the ancient Egyptians’ belief that the stars were directly linked to the afterlife. Also the whole structure is said to be perfectly orientated to the points on a compass. This shows the most workmanship and skill out of all the tombs.
A comparison of the interior
The pyramid at Giza is different from many others from that time, in terms of internal arrangement. It has more chambers than usual, with three known ones, and the decoration is very simplistic, with bare and un-inscribed walls apart from some graffiti put there by the workers. The three known chambers inside the pyramid are the King’s chamber, the Queen’s chamber and the ‘unfinished’ chamber. The unfinished chamber is the largest of the three, which is strange as the king’s chamber was usually the largest. It is also the lowest one and was cut into the bedrock, just like the grave of Agamemnon, it was believed that this was supposed to be the King’s final resting place, until Khufu changed his mind and wanted to be higher up in the tomb. Another strange feature of this chamber is a square pit which was measured to be 12 feet deep; no one knows its purpose. Mystery also surrounds the king’s chamber. The actual room is made from granite, along with the sarcophagus. However, unlike other pyramids, the sarcophagus is the only thing that was found in the king’s chamber, not even the body of the King was placed there. Also, unlike that of Stilicho’s, the sarcophagus is un-inscribed, in keeping with the bare design of the rest of the pyramid. It is uncertain whether the sarcophagus was ever meant for the king as no lid was ever found, and it is too short to accommodate a medium sized individual without the bending of the knees, which was a custom not practised in Egyptian ritual. The Queen’s chamber is the smallest of the three. It is now believed that the name Queen’s chamber is a misnomer and she was never going to be buried there; therefore the nature of this chamber just like the ‘unfinished’ chamber remains unknown. The eastern wall of this chamber contains a niche which Egyptologists believe would have held a statue of the interred. This statue was used as a back up of the Ka (see ancient beliefs below), in case the mummified body was destroyed.
As well as the chambers the pyramid contains both ascending and descending passage ways and the Grand Gallery. Both the ascending and descending passages are angled at 26 degrees, which shows a great deal of workmanship rarely seen in other pyramids. The Grand Gallery is at the end of the ascending passage and it is here where you can decide to go to the king’s or the Queen’s chamber. Unlike the rest of the pyramid, the Grand Gallery is the only place where decoration is found in the form of polished corbelled limestone.
Both the King’s chamber and the Queen’s chamber have air shafts with the ones in the king’s chamber leading to the outside. This connects with the Egyptian belief that the soul of the Pharaoh would travel up these to the stars, as, just like the actual structure of the pyramid, these air shafts in the king’s chamber are in alignment with the stars of Orion, believed by the Egyptians to be their god Osiris. The shafts in the Queen’s chamber remain more elusive as they do not lead to the outside, but to a small doorway which, Egyptologists believe, remains unopened. This could lead to the genuine resting place of the king. This ties in with what was found by two French Egyptologists, who, using radar and architectural analysis, claimed they had found a previously unknown chamber under the Queen’s chamber.
The Pyramid at Giza is by far the most different in terms of internal structure as it is far more complicated than the others. Due to this, the pyramid is the tomb which holds the most secrets and mysteries about how and why it was built in this way.
The actual set out of the interior in Agamemnon’s tomb is a lot like that of the Egyptians as it had a special burial chamber for the King and this was then blocked off. They both are on a huge scale and both have relieving structures to help support the weight. The pyramid of Giza has, several relief chambers, due to the addition of so much extra weight, whereas the tomb of Agamemnon has only a relieving triangle to support the extra weight. This relieving triangle is the signature of all the Tholos tombs. However, as seen in the diagram below, there was no separate chamber for each person, and although the structure reflects the Egyptians’ style of building it is less elaborate with only one passage way leading to only one chamber.
While the structure of the interior is less complex the decorations and the gifts make up for it. The tomb of Agamemnon is filled with treasures for the deceased to take into the after life. According to the archaeologist Schliemann, who found the tomb, ‘the bodies were literally covered with gold and jewels’. These ranged from hairpins and necklaces, so Agamemnon would look at his best for the afterlife, to expensive fashioned and very ornamental weapons, used to defend the dead from threats in the shadow world. The Egyptians were also buried with jewellery and weapons to prepare themselves for the afterlife. Another similarity between the two types of tomb is that of a face mask being used to cover the dead. However in Agamemnon’s tomb a breastplate was also found. These coverings were also used to protect the king after death.
The influence from Crete is apparent in Agamemnon’s tomb. This is seen in the metal cups found which had a pattern of ‘sacral knots’, which is like a looped knot with frayed ends, also imported pottery was found. This shows that the Mycenaeans were open to influence about death and afterlife beliefs. This is like the Roman tomb which is greatly influenced by Christianity. However there was also a lot of local art within the tomb in the form of gold ornaments with lions in combat and chariot hunting.
Beliefs in the ancient world
The Egyptians had a very complex system of belief. They, like the Romans and the Greeks believed in the soul, however they believed that the soul was made up of three parts. These were the ka, ba and the akh. The ka was the person’s life force and after death it lived in the pyramid and was kept happy through offerings and model servants. The ba was the personality; this would change shape and leave the tomb. The akh went to join the stars of Osiris. The akh was the part of the soul that was most like the soul of the Greeks and Romans. Once the person had died, Anubis, the Egyptian god of the underworld, would weigh the person’s heart against the feather of truth, if the scales balanced then the person would go and join Osiris, if the heart tipped the scales then the person would be thrown to the Devourer. This is like the Roman belief of the Elysian Fields and Tartarus, which gets mentioned in the Aeneid and again in book twelve of the Odyssey, where Odysseus meets with the fallen after Troy including Agamemnon. The major difference is that the Egyptians believed that in order to go to the after life the body had to survive. This is why the statue mentioned earlier was important, in case the body did accidentally decay or get damaged.
The closest thing to this idea of the body surviving in the ancient Greek and Roman world is that of prestige, and after you’re dead the importance of having your name remembered. Hence why all rich people made busts of themselves and plaques of all their titles. An example of this is seen in Dinner with Trimalchio, as Trimalchio delights in telling his guests of his funerary arrangements, including having a big statue of himself, and his wife, placed at his grave. The Greeks believed in the soul in the form of the psyche, that the spirit of the dead left the body as a little breath or puff of wind. Just like the Egyptians, the Greeks had weapons and gifts to take with them, so they may look their best in the afterlife. Also offerings or libations were made at the tombs usually by female relatives of the deceased. They also celebrated the dead through funeral games. This is seen in the Iliad after the death of Patroclus, where there is a selection of sporting events such as chariot racing, boxing and a foot race. A similarity between the Greeks and the Romans is their belief in the ferryman; this is seen through evidence of Roman burials having a gold coin put in their mouth or over their eyes, as a fee to go across the river Styx. The Greeks also believe that if the deceased are not buried properly then the ferryman, or Charon, will not ferry them across the water to the underworld and they will remain in limbo. This idea is seen in the Iliad as Patroclus appears to Achilles in a dream begging him to bury his body ‘"You sleep, Achilles, and have forgotten me… Bury me with all speed that I may pass the gates of Hades; the ghosts, vain shadows of men that can labour no more, drive me away from them; they will not yet suffer me to join those that are beyond the river, and I wander all desolate by the wide gates of the house of Hades’.
Roman belief was a mixture of their own beliefs mixed in with influences from both the Greek and Egyptian world. Such as the use of highly structured tombs to show off wealth, depending on how rich the deceased were. Influence came from Egypt in the form of the embalming of the dead with gypsum plaster, thus preserving the body. Unlike the other civilisations the Romans were very wary of the dead and many Romans felt that the dead, living in their tombs, could influence the fortunes of the living in vague, undefined ways. An example of the superstitious nature of the Romans, and their belief in the supernatural, is seen in the Satyricon by Petronius, especially during the dinner with Trimalchio, when the guests take it in turns to tell ghost stories, including one about a werewolf. Also there is archaeological evidence of the dead being weighted down and bodies being decapitated for the purpose of preventing them from haunting the world of the living.
A comparison to today’s beliefs and rites
It is clear that the Greeks, Egyptians, and the Romans especially, had an influence on today’s society. Today many still believe in the soul which travels to either heaven or hell, the equivalent of the Elysian Fields and Tartarus, and the idea of joining Osiris and the devourer, in Egyptian beliefs. Another similarity between today and the Egyptian beliefs is the idea of your soul, or heart, being weighed to see whether you are worthy enough to join the gods. However unlike the Egyptians, Catholics believe in Purgatory, a place of limbo before you are deemed virtuous enough to go to heaven. This idea of limbo is seen in the Greek world, as if you aren’t buried properly, then the ferryman wouldn’t take the dead to the underworld, and they would remain on the banks of the Styx. The Romans came up with the idea of tombstones, so that their name and deeds would be remembered, a tradition carried on today. Sometimes, although not often, in the Roman world, the deceased seemed to have been granted a sort of "hero" status, almost being treated like a god after death. The deceased would occupy a temple where the public could enter; this acted as the forerunner to the tradition of Christians visiting martyr's tombs and the idea of sacred relics. The Roman belief of being wary of the dead also survives today and we too are cautious about the powers of the dead and the supernatural. A difference is that in today’s age we no longer bury people with items to take to the afterlife, yet the belief of looking your best for the next world still remains popular.
In terms of today’s actual tombs, it is very similar to the idea of sarcophagi, however unlike the ancient world, today cremation is popular. The tombs themselves are not as sophisticated as those in the ancient world, and they are not as cared for and treated with as much respect. Overall it is the ancient world that has influenced our beliefs in life after death, more that the actual method of burial.
Bibliography
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Word count 3,160 excluding Bibliography.
A range of fascinating information.
Only glimpses of use of classical literature as source material. Depends heavily on secondary sources. Conclusion is more in the form of a repetition of previous points. But you do answer your own question.
AO1 33
AO2 32
AO3 8
Grade B
Bibliography. Missing
http://classics.mit.edu/Homer/iliad.23.xxiii.html
