It is not a coincidence that the concept of globalisation took off during the time of the information revolution. Even the first traces of globalisation deal, directly or not, with the circulation of information. The circulation, or sometimes imposition, of culture through religions and empires (which imposed information) in the pre-modern era is an example of early globalisation (Held et all, 1999, ch 7).
Waters (1995: 146) says that perhaps the most significant event in 19th century globalisation was when the war correspondent of The Times in the Crimean War of the 1850s was able to telegraph his reports instantly back to London so that events were available almost as soon as they happened. Taking into account that instantaneous electronic communication is required in order for translational corporations (TNCs) to operate their global activities, the information revolution can be granted as the drive for the twentieth century globalisation.
The European Union
The European Union is a primarily economic and secondary political Union. At the present time the EU is comprised by 15 member states some of which incorporate very different cultures.
Up to the 1980s, there was no concern to devise a common media policy; regulation was a matter of national politics.
However, with the advance in new technologies (specifically satellite technology), the need for a common policy became apparent.
Humphreys (1996) identifies two factors as being the drive behind the need for a common policy; the cultural factor and the economic factor.
In terms of culture, initially there was the optimistic view of creating a pan-European satellite service that would eventually lead on to cultural and political integration, but as the 80s wore on that view was abandoned and the issue became to preserve the cultural diversity in Europe (Humphreys, 1996: 259).
However such a view was never supported by the EU mainly because the basis of such a common culture could not be defined and because of the fear of small member-states that their culture would be overwhelmed by the larger states.
In economic terms, the need for a common policy was driven by the awareness of US domination in the European market as far as films and television programmes were concerned.
European Commission officials thought that audiovisual production in Europe would benefit if market barriers were lowered, since that would bring economies of scale in the European market. In addition to this the raised demand for programming would be satisfied by an inter-European exchange that would be competitive with US imports.
Threat or opportunity...
Globalisation can be a force for good. It has the potential to generate wealth and improve living standards. But it isn't doing that well at the moment.
The benefits from increased trade, investment, and technological innovation are not fairly distributed. The experience of the international trade union movement suggests that the reality for the majority of the world's population is that things are getting worse.
Globalisation is increasing the gap between rich and poor. This is because the policies that drive the globalisation process are largely focussed on the needs of business.
The relentless drive to liberalise trade i.e. to remove trade barriers, promote privatisation, and reduce regulation (including legal protection for workers), has had a negative impact on the lives of millions of people around the world. In addition, many of the poorer countries have been pressured to orientate their economies towards producing exports and to reduce already inadequate spending on public services such as health and education so that they can repay their foreign debt. This has forced even more people into a life of poverty and uncertainty.
The role of governments...
The type of globalisation experiencing is sometimes portrayed as an inevitable, technologically driven process that we must adapt to in order to survive and prosper. For millions of workers, in the developing as well as the developed world, this has been translated into living with greater job insecurity and worse conditions.
But the reality is that the globalisation has seen in recent decades has been driven by a laborious process of international rule making and enforcement. Governments have made those rules. There has been a conscious political choice to pursue the policies that underpin the process. Domestic, economic, industrial and social policies also play a crucial role in determining living conditions, though poorer countries are less able to resist globalisation due to their economically weaker position.
The key players...
A number of key players are driving globalisation. They include multinational enterprises which carry out business across national boundaries; the World Trade Organisation (WTO), through which international trade agreements are negotiated and enforced; the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) which are meant to assist governments in achieving development aims through the provision of loans and technical assistance. They have championed the trade liberalisation policies mentioned above. Governments, and these international institutions are instrumental in determining the outcome of globalisation.
The impact on women...
The impact of globalisation on men and women is different.
Women, particularly those in developing countries, suffer disproportionately when public services are cut back. This is because they have primary responsibility for caring for children and other family members. Also, girls are more likely to be withdrawn from school when the family income needs to be supplemented or when the cost of education rises.
While the expansion of international trade has generated employment opportunities for women in certain circumstances, trade policies have often served to entrench the traditionally inferior role assigned to women in many countries. Occupational segregation, pay inequality, and unequal access to resources are but a few of the discriminatory measures that women face.
The rise of Export Processing zones where large numbers of young women labour in poor and dangerous conditions to produce cheap consumer goods, and the expansion of outsourcing and home-based employment have also raised new issues and concerns for women workers.
Putting people first...
Ways need to be found to manage and structure globalisation so that it supports fundamental human rights and sustainable development, and generates prosperity for ordinary people, particularly the poorest. Left unchecked, globalisation will lead to their further marginalisation and impoverishment.
PRIORITIES
The TUC, along with partner organisations in the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU), the European Trade Union Confederation (ETUC) and the Trade Union Advisory Committee (TUAC) to the OECD have worked for a number of years to include social issues in the trade agenda.
The continue campaign form many organisation at both national and international levels consist in develop for strong and effective regulation to protect fundamental human rights and to manage the negative aspects of globalisation such as financial volatility and the inequitable distribution of economic benefits.
Demands support fair and transparent world trade and the removal of trade barriers, but on the basis that social concerns are not neglected.
A lot more needs to be done to promote development in non-industrialised countries and to eliminate poverty.
The is a need to request:
- Debt relief
- Increased aid
- Fair trade terms
- Protection for public services
- Access to essential medicines such as HIV/AIDS treatment
- Capacity building and assistance with international trade negotiation
- Reform of the WTO, World Bank and IMF so that there is greater transparency and democracy within their operations
- Respect fundamental workers' rights
Conclusion
Core labour standards form the basic building blocks of democracy and are crucial to the empowerment of people, particularly those who are impoverished and marginalised.
Freedom of association, the right to effective collective bargaining, freedom from forced and child labour, and freedom from discrimination are basic human rights that help people to break out of the poverty trap.
These must be respected and not violated in the name of international trade. Consequently, there has to be co-ordination and co-operation between the WTO and the International Labour Organisation (ILO) to ensure that trade rules and policies do not continue to undermine labour standards.
A number of developing countries have expressed concern about labour standards being used for protectionist purposes i.e. to protect jobs in industrialised countries and to reduce the competitiveness of developing countries.
This implementation is to try to pursue respect for labour standards in a non-protectionist way and have promoted a joint WTO-ILO Standing Working Forum to try to achieve this
Bibliography
Chomsky N, ‘Free Trade and Free Market: Pretence and Practice’, in Jameson F. and Miyoshi M (Eds), the Cultures of Globalisation, 1998, Duke University Press, London.
Held D., Goldblatt D., McGrew A., Perraton J., Global Transformations: Politics, Economics and Culture, 1999, Polity Press, Cambridge.
Humphreys P. J., Mass Media and Media Policy in Western Europe, 1996, Manchester University Press, Manchester.
Lash S. and Urry J., Economies of Signs and Space, 1994, Sage, London.
Robertson R., Globalisation: social theory and global culture, 1992, Sage, London.
Sussman G., Communication, Technology and Politics in the Information Age, 1997, Sage, London.
Waters M., Globalisation, 1995, Routledge, London.
Jones, T., Globalisation and Environment, OECD Proceedings, 1998.
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Keywords: European Union, Globalisation and the Environment
