What are the consequences of societal multilingualism?

SOCIOLINGUISTICS STUDENT NUMBER:99316716

In order to understand the choices that are available to speakers, we must first understand what languages and varieties are available to them, in that particular social context. The social context involves concepts such as ethnicity, nationality, language, religion, gender and social class. These are the domains in which a multilingual speaker is likely to change his/her language, according to the society in which the speaker finds his/herself.

Societal multilingualism although involving positive qualities it can bring problems for the linguistic minorities that are living within a certain country, as they have to acquire a high standard of proficiency in at least two languages. Not only will they be speaking the language of their ethnic background, but they will also have to learn the language of the country they are living in. The level at which they must reach in speaking this ‘native’ language will have to be of a high standard. Without this high level of proficiency in the language/s of the country they will be unable to function as full members of that society.

One of the linguistic problems facing the minorities is in the domain of education where the language that may be the most widely spoken is not necessarily the same language that will be spoken in the educational system. The language that will be spoken in the educational system, may be referred to by sociolinguists as the official language of the country, and will not necessarily be the most widely spoken language in the country. In a multilingual society there will be an individuals native language and the majority language that will be spoken.

An example of a multilingual society is Singapore, where it is considered normal to switch between languages. The reason for this is because there are four official languages: English, the Mandarin variety of Chinese, Tamil and Malay, which is also the national language. Each language has its own separate function. English is used for the purpose of trading, Mandarin as the international Chinese language, Malay is the regional language, and Tamil is used as it represents one of the largest ethnic groups in the country. It is important to note, however, that the most spoken language in the country is another form of Chinese called Hokkien. Hokkien tends to be spoken to parents and informal Singapore English is spoken with siblings, and conversation with friends will be spoken either in Hokkien or informal Singapore English. The languages of education will be taught in the formal variety of Singapore English and Mandarin. Religious services will be given in different languages, depending on the religion that is being practised. The language that the government will employ will be formal Singapore English, and at times Mandarin may be used in times where there is a need for informality.

Having said that the official language is not always the majority language of a country, it is often found that this majority language is spoken as the official language of the country. This official language will be used in the educational system and also within the government. It may be seen from this wide choice of languages, and the different choices made in using these languages depends largely on the occasion and factors that have been previously mentioned, in which the speakers find themselves.

It is probably true to say, that over half the worlds population is bilingual, and ...

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It is probably true to say, that over half the worlds population is bilingual, and that bilingualism is present in practically every country in the world. The bilinguals choice of language and dialect have respectively been shown to be a function of these three factors; the person to whom they are talking to, the topic of discourse and the setting in which it takes place. The monolinguals speech style has also depended on such factors as these, the result being a change in register or tone of voice.

Monolingualism is often viewed by society as the normal and desirable level of a speaker’s language, and they are often very critical. Multilingual speakers are often viewed as negative, and are considered lower class by the monolingual speakers. The tragic consequence created in many western societies, the majority of which are monolingual speakers, is that bilingual or multilingual speakers are given little credit for be able to communicate in more than one language, and tend to be viewed as occupying low-positions in society. Having this added knowledge of another language becomes associated with inferiority and negativity, rather than being considered as an asset or as something positive.

Monolingual speakers will not switch between languages, but will often switch between different styles of language, as multilingual community speaker’s switch among languages or varieties. It has been recognised that the process which makes a monolingual shift styles, is the same as those that makes a bilingual or even a multilingual switch languages. A monolingual speaker of English will make quantitative shifts on a number of linguistic variables when talking to a stranger rather than speaking with a family member. The change in register, dialect or language may be referred to as a code, something decided upon by the individual speakers.

'Code,' is a useful term because it is neutral, it refers to any kind of system that two or more people employ for communication. The particular language o dialect that a person chooses to use on any occasion is a ‘code,’ a system used for communication between to or more parties. What we must ask ourselves is why do people chose to use one code rather than another, why chose one language rather than another? Codes are also often mixed to form separate codes, to create a single separate code.

‘Code switching,’ is a strategy used in conversations and is used to establish, cross or destroy group boundaries, to create, evoke or change interpersonal relations with their rights and obligations.

Code switching, is a consequence of bilingualism or more generally multilingualism. A choice that is made between languages, when they speak more than one, according to the circumstances in which they find themselves.

In view of this there are certain factors which must be taken into consideration, the first being whether the language will be comprehensible to the person being addressed. Speakers will, generally speaking, choose a language that the other person can understand. In societal multilingualism the different languages are always used in different circumstances, and the choice that they make is always controlled by social rules. Typically one language is reserved for use at home and another is used in a wider community.

One language will have a certain social function that another language would be unable to fulfil; each language will represent certain social distinctions. The choice of language will define and redefine the situation; this is referred to as metaphorical code switching. This may change, between formal to informal, official to personal, serious to humorous and politeness to solidarity. This form of code switching is referred to as metaphorical code switching, and is concerned with the various effects that the speaker intends to convey while communicating. For example teachers delivering formal lectures, in the official language that is used for the educational system or in the formal register (RP). What will then happen is that they will then switch to a less formal dialect or register, so as to encourage discussion among students.

Code switching refers not only to the switching of a language but includes dialects and registers. This type of switching is referred to as ‘situational’ code switching. The reason for this is because the switching or change occurs according to a change from external situation to another. An example of this is talking to a family member and then talking to a member of the public, such as a neighbour.

In certain places in New Guinea, it has been noted that they will choose the most appropriate language for the particular circumstances. In certain areas of the world, such as Africa or Asia where there are numerous languages spoken. Different languages are used; depending on the group of people or the person that is being spoken to. They will use a different language when they are in the shops, when they go to the doctors and a different language again when they are speaking to a family member. It may be referred to as formal or informal speech. As is the case in Paraguay where the American Indian language, Guarani has flourished since its isolation from Spain and is now the most widely used language for over 90% of the population and is the second language for the rest of its population. Although the most widely used and spoken language it is still not the official language of Paraguay, Spanish s used as the official language of the government and through the medium of education. It has also been discovered that the further one travels into the countryside the more monolingual speakers of Guarani are found.

The use of formal speech in Paraguay is Spanish and is used in formal occasions in business situations, in conversation with strangers that are well dressed and that are of a high social status and also with foreigners. The informal dialect/language that is used is Guarani, and is used amongst friends, servants and strangers that are poorly dressed and are of a lower social status to the speaker. It has also been found that it is used and mostly in casual situations such as when a person is telling a joke, or in a confessional environment.

What we are able to see from these examples is that Spanish is the language of educational opportunity, and is also the socially preferred of the country. It will also, on occasion, indicate a person’s social class/status depending on whether they use Guarani or Spanish in social occasions.

Code mixing is viewed by monolingual speakers as negative, and it is the monolingual speakers that have developed such terms as Franglais (French and English), Fragnol (French and Spanish in Argentina), Spanglish (Cuban Spanish and English in the USA), Tex-Mex (English and Mexican Spanish in Texas). This shows their dismissal of this activity, and subsequently demonstrates their complete misunderstanding.

Code switching and code mixing involve a highly sophisticated knowledge of both languages, and the individual must be aware of the community norms while speaking both languages. The ability to mix codes in this way, while having a conversation is viewed by the individuals as a source of pride.

This gives an example of societal multilingualsim, where there are a number of languages being spoken and that only certain dialects are used in particular social settings. The factors that are taken into consideration, when making a choice between using Guarani and Spanish depends on a variety of factors; location, formality, sex, status, intimacy, seriousness and type of activity. Fishman (1971) has described the linguistic situation in Paraguay as an example of ‘diglossia.’

‘A diglossic situation exists in a society when it has two distinct codes which show clear functional separation, that is, one code employed in one set of circumstances and the other an entirely different set.’ The situation known as diglossia, is where a language or variety in a multilingual community serves a specialised function, and that is used for a particular purpose. Defining characteristics of diglossia are that the two varieties are kept quite apart in their functions. One is used for a particular set of circumstances and the other is used in an entirely different set of circumstances.

In the example of Spanish and Guarani, Spanish is the H variety (sermons, formal lectures, etc) and Guarani is the L variety (i.e. Instructions to workers in low prestige occupations). The H variety is the prestige variety and is the taught variety, and the L variety is the learned variety.

Although a bilingual or multilingual society has the capability of creating positive effects, such as allowing communication to occur with a minority percentage of the population. This situation is still capable of creating a negative effect, such as a loss of language, in particular amongst the immigrants. The immigrant will be forced into speaking the official language of the country on a more regular basis, and will begin to speak his/hers native language on a much less frequent basis. A multilingual society may also lead to a sort of diffusion; certain features will spread from one language to another, as a result of the multilingual situation, particularly in the area of where syntactic features will diffuse. A multilingual society may also create a degree of confusion amongst the speakers when they are not fully aware of the community norms, and the particular functions of the language in relation to the way the society functions.

The most positive effect societal multilingualism creates is communication between the society as a whole, whether the person that an individual is speaking to is familiar or unfamiliar. This is proved in the case of Singapore, where numerous languages are used in a numerous different circumstances.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Trudgill, Peter 2000. Sociolinguistics: an introduction to language and society. Penguin Books
Coupland, Nikolas & Jaworski, Adam 1997. Sociolinguistics. Palgrave.
Hudson, R.A. 1996. Sociolinguistics. Cambridge University Press.
Romaine, Suzanne 2000. An introduction to sociolinguistics: Language in society. Oxford University Press.