Unit 5 Anatomy and physiology in health and social care

Introduction
A system is made up of different tissues and organs working together to perform a specific function in the body.

Skeletal system: 

Skeletal system is the system of bones, associated cartilages and joints of human body. Together these structures form the human skeleton. Skeleton can be defined as the hard framework of human body around which the entire body is built. Almost all the hard parts of human body are components of human skeletal system. Joints are very important because they make the hard and rigid skeleton allow different types of movements at different locations. If the skeleton were without joints, no movement would have taken place and the significance of human body; no more than a stone.

Components of Human Skeleton:

Human skeleton is composed of three main components; Bones, Associated cartilages and Joints.

Bones: Bone is a tough and rigid form of connective tissue. It is the weight bearing organ of human body and it is responsible for almost all strength of human skeleton.

Cartilages: Cartilage is also a form of connective tissue but is not as tough and rigid as bone. The main difference in the cartilage and bone is the mineralization factor. Bones are highly mineralized with calcium salts while cartilages are not.

Joints: Joints are important components of human skeleton because they make the human skeleton mobile. A joint occurs between “two or more bones”, “bone and cartilage” and “cartilage and cartilage”.

Divisions of Human Skeleton: Human skeleton can be divided into two divisions.

Axial Skeleton:

Axial skeleton forms the axis of human body. It consists of Skull, vertebral column and thoracic cage.

Skull: Skull is that part of human skeleton that forms the bony framework of the head. It consists of 22 different bones that are divided into two groups: bones of cranium and bones of face.

Vertebral Column: It is a flexible column of vertebrae, connecting the trunk of human body to the skull and appendages. It is composed of 33 vertebrae which are divided into 5 regions: Cervical, Thoracic, Lumbar, Sacral, and Coccygeal.

Rib Cage: It is a bony cage enclosing vital human organs formed by the sternum and ribs. There are 12 pairs of ribs that are divided into three groups: True ribs, False ribs, and Floating ribs.

Appendicular Skeleton:

It is the skeleton of appendages of human body. It consists of Shoulder girdle, Skeleton of upper limb, Pelvic girdle and Skeleton of lower limb.

Shoulder Girdle: It attaches the upper limb to body trunk and is formed by two bones: clavicle and scapula. Clavicle is a modified long bone and is subcutaneous throughout its position. It is also known as the beauty bone. Scapula is a pear shaped flat bone that contains the glenoid fossa for the formation of shoulder joint. It possesses three important processes: Spine of scapula, Acromion process and Coracoid process.

Skeleton of Upper limb: The skeleton of each upper limb consists of 30 bones. These bones are: Humerus, Ulna, Radius, Carpals (8), Metacarpals (5), and Phalanges (14).

Pelvic Girdle: There are two pelvic girdles (one for each lower limb) but unlike the pectoral girdles, they are jointed with each other at symphysis pubis. Each pelvic girdle is a single bone in adults and is made up of three components: Ileum, Ischium and Pubis.

Skeleton of Lower limb: The skeleton of each lower limb consists of 30 bones. These bones are; Femur, Tibia, Patella, Tarsals (7), Metatarsals (5), Phalanges (14).

Functions of human skeleton:

Human skeleton performs some important functions that are necessary for survival of human beings.

1. Strength, support and shape: It gives strength, support and shape to the body. Without a hard and rigid skeletal system, human body cannot stand upright, and it will become just a bag of soft tissues without any proper shape.

2. Protection of delicate organs: In areas like the rib cage and skull, the skeleton protects inner soft but vital organs like heart and brain from external shocks. Any damage to these organs can prove fatal, therefore protective function of skeleton is very important

3. Leverage for movements: Bones of the human skeleton in all parts of body provide attachment to the muscles. These muscles provide motor power for producing movements of body parts. In these movements the parts of skeleton acts like levers of different types thus producing movements according to the needs of the human body.

4. Production of red blood cells: Bones like the sternum, and heads of tibia have hemopoeitic activity (blood cells production). These are the sites of production of new blood cells.

• Muscular system:

Muscular system is the system of Human Body that provides motor power for all movements of body parts. Muscular system is composed of special tissue called muscular tissue. Muscles have the ability to contract actively to provide the force for movements of body parts. Muscular system is an important system of human body because without it, life will completely stop. Muscles produce not only those movements that are under the control of our will and that we can see and feel, but also those movements that are responsible for activities like breathing, digestion of food, pumping of blood etc.

Muscles:

Muscles are body tissues that provide the force for all body movements. They are made of special types of cells.

Types of muscles:

Muscles are basically of three types; Skeletal Muscles, Smooth Muscles and Cardiac Muscles.

1. Skeletal Muscles:
Skeletal muscles form most of the human body weight. They are under the control of human will and all body movements occurring by our will are produced by skeletal muscles. They are called skeletal muscles because they are almost always found attached to the skeleton and produce movements in different parts of the skeleton.

2. Smooth Muscles:
Smooth muscles form the soft body organs like stomach, intestine, blood vessels etc. They are not under the will of human beings and are responsible for unconscious body activities like digestion of food. They are called smooth muscles because when seen under the microscope, they do not have any striation in contrast to the other two types of muscles

3. Cardiac Muscles:
Cardiac muscles are exclusively found in human heart and no where else. They are extremely strong and powerful muscles. They are not under the control of human will and are involuntary. The pumping of blood by human heart is because of the force provided by the contraction of cardiac muscles.

Functions of Muscular System:

Muscular system has the following important functions in human body;

1. Movement of body parts: Skeletal muscles are responsible for all voluntary movements of human body parts. They provide the force by contracting actively at the expense of energy. In other words, muscles are motors of body where chemical energy of food is converted into mechanical work.

2. Stability and posture: Skeletal muscles stabilize human skeleton and give a proper posture to human beings. Some joints of human body are weak and they require the support of muscular system to achieve stability. Skeletal muscles are very important for such joints.

3. Heat production: A large share of body’s energy is used by muscular system. As a result of high metabolic rate, muscles produce great amount of heat in the body. Heat produced by muscles is very important in cold climates.

4. Circulation: Cardiac muscles provide the main force for circulation of blood throughout human body. The regular pumping of heat keeps the blood in motion and nutrients are readily available to every tissue of human body.

5. Help in digestion: Smooth muscles of organs like stomach and intestine help the digestive system in the process of digestion of food.

• Nervous system:

 Nervous system is the chief controlling and coordinating system of the body. It controls and regulates all voluntary and involuntary activities of human body. There are three characteristic properties of nervous system of human body; Sensitivity, Conductivity and Responsiveness

Neuron is the unit of nervous system:

The structural and functional unit of nervous system is called neuron. It is a special type of cell with a cell body and cell processes.

Parts of nervous system:

Nervous system of human body is divided broadly into two parts; Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).

• Central nervous system: Central nervous system includes brain and spinal cord.

• Peripheral nervous system: Peripheral nervous system includes all the parts of nervous system except brain and spinal cord. It is further divided into two components; Somatic nervous system and Autonomic nervous system.

Nerves:

Nerves are solid cords composed of bundles of nerve fibers (each nerve fiber is an axon with its coverings) bound together by connective tissue. Nerves are of two types; Spinal nerves and Cranial Nerves.

• Spinal Nerves: Spinal nerves arise from the spinal cord. There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves in human body.

•  Cranial Nerves: Cranial nerves arise from the brain. There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves in human body.

Functions of nervous system:

1. Control of all body functions: Nervous system is the master system of human body. It controls the activity of all other systems in such a way that all the systems collectively make a human being. Without a controlling system, there is no concept of life because in such case there will be no coordination between different body functions and they will all act separately. Nervous system not only controls the voluntary functions of human body that are directed by human will, but it also controls those functions that are below the level of consciousness of human beings. Control of a function means that the intensity of that function can be increased or decreased according to the demands of human body.

2. Coordination of different body organs: Nervous system not only produces coordination between different systems, but also between different organs of a system. To form an organ system, role of the component organs must also be coordinated. So nervous system is not only important for formation of an organism by different organ systems, but also for formation of a system by different organs of human body.

• Respiratory system:

Respiratory system is the system of respiratory passages, lungs and respiratory muscles of human body. Respiratory system is responsible for exchange of gases between the human body and the surroundings. In the process of exchange of gases, human body gains oxygen and gets rid of carbon dioxide. Other gases of the atmosphere have no significant role in human respiratory system. Respiratory system is extremely important for human body because the process of respiration cannot be stropped even for a few seconds. If the process of respiration stops even for a minute or two, the condition will become serious and will ultimately end in death.

Organs of human respiratory system:

The main organs of human respiratory system are lungs and respiratory passages. Muscles of respiration also form a component of respiratory system but there importance is rather little as compared to lungs and respiratory passages.

Lungs:
Lungs are the organs of human body where gaseous exchange take place. Human beings have two lungs known as the right and left lungs. Lungs are soft, spongy and very elastic.

Respiratory Passages: Respiratory passages or air-ways are the conducting portions of human respiratory system. Here no exchange of gases takes place, but they guide the air to go to the lungs and not anywhere else in the body. Conducting portion of the human respiratory system consists of; Traches, Bronchi, Bronchioles, Alveolar sacs and Alveoli.

Functions of Respiratory System:

1. Gaseous exchange: Main function of respiratory system is gaseous exchange. Through respiratory system new air is always brought into the body and used air is expelled out. In this way oxygen is gained and carbon dioxide is lost by the body.

2. Excretion of carbon dioxide: Respiratory system is the major system for excretion of carbon dioxide from the body. Carbon dioxide is produced as a result of metabolic break down of carbohydrates in body and must be eliminated quickly. Carbon dioxide is brought to the lungs by blood and is lost from the lungs through gaseous exchange with fresh air in lungs.

3. Oxygenation of blood: Oxygen is required by the body for breakdown of food and must be continuously supplied for continuous supply of energy. Supply of oxygen is maintained by respiratory system.

• Cardiovascular system:

Cardiovascular System:

Cardiovascular system means the system of heart and blood vessels of human body. The term “cardiovascular” is a combination of two word; “Cardio” and “vascular”. The term “cardio” is derived from “cardiac” meaning Heart and the term “vascular” means blood vessels. So the name itself indicates that a cardiovascular system is the system of heart and blood vessels. Cardiovascular system is also known as “Circulatory System”.

Components of Cardiovascular System:

Cardiovascular system is made up of three major components; Heart, Blood vessels and blood.

Heart: Heart is a hollow muscular organ made of strong cardiac muscles. Heart can push the blood through the circulatory system with great force. In fact push of the heart is the major force that causes circulation of blood throughout human body. Heart is made up of three layers; Pericardium, Myocardium and Endocardium.

Blood vessels: Human beings have a closed type of circulatory system in which blood does not come in direct contact with body tissues. Instead the blood flows in restricted pathways called blood vessels. Materials are exchanged between blood and body tissues through the walls of blood vessels. Thus blood vessels are pathways of blood flow in human body. There are three main types of blood vessels; Arteries, Capillaries and Veins.

Blood: Blood is a specialized tissue of body that exists in fluid form. It is one of the five basic types of tissues of human body. Blood consists of two major portions: Blood cells and Plasma. Plasma is the watery portion of blood that makes it a fluid. 90% of blood plasma is water and remaining 10% are proteins, inclusions and waste products etc. Blood cells are of three main types: Red Blood Cells (RBCs), White Blood Cells (WBCs) and Platelets.

Importance of Cardiovascular System:

Perfectly functioning cardiovascular system is so important for human body, that if it stops for a minute, rapid death will occur. The flow of blood is necessary for existence of life. If the flow of blood is stopped, life will stop. Heart is the main organ of cardiovascular system and it is responsible for distributing blood all over human body. Heart diseases are categorized as the “leading cause of death” in United States.

Lymphatic System Outline:

Lymphatic system:

 Lymphatic system is the drainage system of human body and is accessory to the venous system. At arterial ends of capillaries fluid leaks out and at the venous end, it is absorbed back in. Some of the fluid remains in the tissue spaces. This fluid is called lymph and the system by which this lymph is returned back to blood is called lymphatic system. In addition to its drainage function, lymphatic system is also an effective defense system of the body because some organs of the lymphatic system (lympho-reticular organs) are involved in defense activities of the body.

Components of lymphatic system:

Lymphatic system is composed of the following important components.

Lymph vessels: Lymph vessels are pathways for flow of lymph around the body. Lymph vessels begin as lymph capillaries that begin blindly in tissue spaces and lead to larger lymph vessels. Lymph vessels do not arise from avascular structures, brain, spinal cord, bone marrow and splenic pulp. Larger lymph vessels anastomose freely with one another and they ultimately drain the lymph into the venous system.

Central lymphoid tissue: Central lymphoid tissue consists of bone marrow and thymus.

Peripheral lymphoid organs: Peripheral lymphoid organs are lymph nodes, spleen and epithelia-lymphoid tissues (lymphoid tissue present in epithelium e.g. lymphoid tissue of alimentary and respiratory tracts).

Circulating pool of lymphocytes: It contains mature progenies of T-lymphocytes and B-lymphocytes. They form the first line of defense of the body during antigenic emergencies.

Functions of Lymphatic System:

1. Remove particulate matter: Lymph capillaries absorb and remove large protein molecules and other particulate matter from tissue spaces. In this way cellular debris and other harmful particles are washed away.

2. Filter the lymph for foreign harmful: Lymph nodes act as filter for the lymph and in this way they purify the lymph flowing through them.

3. Phagocytosis: Antigens are removed from lymph by phagocytic activity of cells of lymph node.

4. Production of lymphocytes: Mature B-lymphocytes and mature T-lymphocytes are produced in lymph nodes.

5. Immune responses: Lymphatic system can induce both cellular and humoral immune responses.

Endocrine system:

Endocrine System:

Endocrine system is the system of glands of human body. Each of these glands secretes one or more different hormones in the blood for different functions. The secretions of endocrine glands are known as hormones. Each endocrine gland may secrete one or more hormones in the blood and these hormones may or may not have related functions. Generally the hormones regulate different functions of human body like growth, mood, development, and metabolism etc. The perform their function by attaching to the target cells and then communicating with them.

Endocrine Glands:

Endocrine glands are ductless glands of human body that pour their secretions (hormones) directly into the blood. They have three characteristic features that are:

1. They are ductless
2. They are highly vascularized
3. They possess intracellular vacuoles or granules that store the hormones

Endocrine glands of Human Body:

Endocrine glands of human body are divided into two categories; 1) typical endocrine glands, 2) Organs having secondary endocrine function.

1) Typical endocrine glands: These glands have primary function of producing hormones for human body. Typical endocrine glands include;

1. Pituitary gland.
2. Thyroid gland.
3. Parathyroid gland.
4. Adrenal gland.

Typical Endocrine Glands

2) Organs having secondary endocrine function: These organs primarily belong to some other system of the body but have a secondary function of producing hormones. They include;

1. Pancreas (Hormones of Pancreas)
2. Ovaries  (In females) (Hormones of Ovaries)
3. Testes  (In males) (Hormones of Testes)
4. Kidneys  (Hormones of Kidneys)
5. Liver  (Hormones of Liver)

Functions of the endocrine system:

As stated above, endocrine system is a regulatory system of human body. In fact it associates the nervous system in controlling body functions. The control of body function by the nervous system is called nervous coordination and the control of body functions by the endocrine system is called chemical coordination. The control of body functions by the endocrine system is a long term control system. All the necessary changes and adaptations of the body, required for the long term control of a specific function, are influenced by the hormonal system.

Digestive System

Digestion is the process by which food is broken down into smaller pieces so the body can use them to build and nourish cells, and to provide energy. Digestion involves the mixing of food, its movement through the digestive tract (also known as the alimentary canal), and the chemical breakdown of larger molecules into smaller molecules. Every piece of food we eat has to be broken down into smaller nutrients that the body can absorb, which is why it takes hours to fully digest food.

The digestive system is made up of the digestive tract. This consists of a long tube of organs that runs from the mouth to the anus and includes the oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine, together with the liver, gallbladder, and pancreas, which produce important secretions for digestion that drain into the small intestine. The digestive tract in an adult is about 30 feet long

Mouth and Salivary Glands

Digestion begins in the mouth, where chemical and mechanical digestion occurs. Saliva or spit, produced by the salivary glands (located under the tongue and near the lower jaw), is released into the mouth. Saliva begins to break down the food, moistening it and making it easier to swallow. A digestive enzyme () in the saliva begins to break down the carbohydrates (starches and sugars). One of the most important functions of the mouth is chewing. Chewing allows food to be mashed into a soft mass that is easier to swallow and digest later.

Movements by the tongue and the mouth push the food to the back of the throat for it to be swallowed. A flexible flap called the epiglottis closes over the trachea (windpipe) to ensure that food enters the oesophagus and not the windpipe to prevent .

Oesophagus

Once food is swallowed, it enters the oesophagus, a muscular tube that is about 10 inches long. The oesophagus is located between the throat and the stomach. Muscular wavelike contractions known as  push the food down through the oesophagus to the stomach. A muscular ring (cardiac sphincter) at the end of the oesophagus allows food to enter the stomach, and, then, it squeezes shut to prevent food and fluid from going back up the oesophagus.

Stomach

The stomach is a J-shaped organ that lies between the oesophagus and the small intestine in the upper abdomen. The stomach has 3 main functions: to store the swallowed food and liquid; to mix up the food, liquid, and digestive juices produced by the stomach; and to slowly empty its contents into the small intestine.

Only a few substances, such as water and alcohol, can be absorbed directly from the stomach. Any other food substances must undergo the digestive processes of the stomach. The stomach's strong muscular walls mix and churn the food with acids and enzymes (gastric juice), breaking it into smaller pieces. About three quarts of the gastric juice is produced by glands in the stomach every day.

The food is processed into a semiliquid form called . After eating a meal, the chyme is slowly released a little at a time through the pyloric sphincter, a thickened muscular ring between the stomach and the first part of the small intestine called the . Most food leaves the stomach by four hours after eating.

Small Intestine

Most digestion and absorption of food occurs in the small intestine. The small intestine is a narrow, twisting tube that occupies most of the lower abdomen between the stomach and the beginning of the large intestine. It extends about 20 feet in length. The small intestine consists of three parts: the duodenum (the C-shaped part), the  (the coiled midsection), and the  (the last section).

The small intestine has two important functions.

1. The digestive process is completed here by enzymes and other substances made by intestinal cells, the pancreas, and the liver. Glands in the intestine walls secrete enzymes that breakdown starches and sugars. The pancreas secretes enzymes into the small intestine that help breakdown carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. The liver produces bile, which is stored in the gallbladder. Bile helps to make fat molecules (which otherwise are not soluble in water) soluble, so they can be absorbed by the body.
2. The small intestine absorbs the nutrients from the digestive process. The inner wall of the small intestine is covered by millions of tiny finger like projections called villi. The villi are covered with even tinier projections called microvilli. The combination of villi and microvilli increase the surface area of the small intestine greatly, allowing absorption of nutrients to occur. Undigested material travels next to the large intestine.

Large Intestine

The large intestine forms an upside down U over the coiled small intestine. It begins at the lower right-hand side of the body and ends on the lower left-hand side. The large intestine is about 5-6 feet long. It has three parts: the cecum, the colon, and the rectum. The cecum is a pouch at the beginning of the large intestine. This area allows food to pass from the small intestine to the large intestine. The colon is where fluids and salts are absorbed and extends from the cecum to the rectum. The last part of the large intestine is the rectum, which is where feces (waste material) is stored before leaving the body through the anus.

The main job of the large intestine is to remove water and salts () from the undigested material and to form solid waste that can be excreted. Bacteria in the large intestine help to break down the undigested materials. The remaining contents of the large intestine are moved toward the rectum, where faeces are stored until they leave the body through the anus as a bowel movement.

Urinary System

Urinary System

Urinary system is also known as excretory system of human body. It is the system of production, storage and elimination of urine. Formation and elimination of urine is important for human body because urine contains nitrogenous wastes of the body that must be eliminated to maintain homeostasis. Nitrogenous wastes are formed by metabolic activities in the cells. These nitrogenous wastes along with excess of salts and water are combined in the kidneys to form urine. Urinary system is important for keeping the internal environment of the body clean. Urinary system maintains proper homeostasis of water, salts and nitrogenous wastes.

Components of urinary system:

Human urinary system consists of two kidneys, two ureters, a urinary bladder, a urethra and sphincter muscles.

• Kidneys: Kidneys are the major organs of urinary system. Formation of urine takes place in kidneys which are two bean shaped organs lying close to the lumbar spine, one on each side of the body.

• Ureters: These are muscular tubes extending from the kidneys to the urinary bladder. Urine flows in these tubes from kidney to the urinary bladder.

• Urinary bladder: Urinary Bladder collects urine before it is excreted from the body. Urinary bladder is a hollow muscular and elastic organ siting on the pelvic floor

• Urethra: Urethra is a tube that connects the urinary bladder to the external genitalia for elimination from the body.

• Sphincter muscles: There are two sphincter muscles to control the elimination of urine from human body. The external of the two muscles is striated and is under voluntary control of the body.

Functions of urinary system:

As stated above, urinary system is the excretory system of human body. It performs the following important functions;

1. Formation and elimination of urine: The main function of urinary system is formation and elimination of urine. Urine is formed by the kidneys in 3 steps; 1) Glomerular Filtration, 2) Tubular reabsorption, and 3) Tubular secretion.

2. Osmoregulation: Kidneys are important osmoregulatory organs of human body. They maintain salt and water balance of the body. If the concentration of salt or water is increased above normal, kidney will excrete the excess amount. If the concentration is decreased, kidneys will reduce the loss of water and salts in urine.

3. Acid base balance: Kidneys are important regulators of pH of body fluids. Kidneys keep the pH balanced within a very small range and provide an optimum environment for all processes of life

The integumentary system

The Integumentary system is the organ system that protects human body from damage. It consists of skin and its appendages, which include hair, nails, and sweat glands etc. It forms about 16 percent of the weight of human body.

Functions:

The Integumentary system has a variety of functions.

• It serves as a waterproof cushion that protects deeper tissues.
• It excretes wastes and regulates body temperature
• It is the attachment site for different types of sensory receptors to detect pain, sensation, pressure, and temperature.
• It is also a source of vitamin D synthesis which is required for healthy human body.

The reproductive system:

Male Reproductive System Outline:

Male Reproductive System:

Male reproductive system is the system of sex organs of male human beings that are a part of the overall reproductive process of human beings. Reproduction is the capacity of all living organisms to give rise to their babies that are similar to them. In human beings, sexual type of reproduction takes place and for this type of reproduction, male and female reproductive systems are required. Male reproductive system is mainly concerned with production of semen (whitish viscous fluid emitted from the male reproductive tract that contains sperm and fluids) and transferring it into the female reproductive tract.

Organs of male reproductive system:

The organs of male reproductive system are penis and testes. They lie outside the male’s body in the pelvic region.

• Penis: Penis is the external sexual organ of male human beings. Its main role is to get access to the female reproductive system during sexual intercourse. In addition to the reproductive role, it also serves as the excretory organ through which urine is expelled out of the body.

• Testes: Testes are components of both reproductive and endocrine system. For reproductive system they produce sperm and for endocrine system they produce male sex hormones like testosterone.

Functions of the male reproductive system:

Testes, that are organs of male reproductive system, also produce male sex hormones that distinguish maleness from femaleness. Reproduction is the process through which life continues to exist. Every individual has a limited life span and no one can survive for ever. For the survival of life, reproduction is a necessary process because otherwise no new life will be formed and old life will disappear. So both reproductive systems, whether male or female, are important for survival of life.

Female Reproductive System Outline:

Female Reproductive System:

Female Reproductive System

Female reproductive system is the system of reproduction in female human beings. The female reproductive system is complex as compared to the male reproductive system. Females have to bear fetus during fetal period of development within their bodies. Modifications and adaptations to bear the fetus make female reproductive system more complex. The female body also shows certain adaptations to become capable of bearing the fetus for nine months. Main role of female reproductive system is to produce eggs and allow the process of fertilization and development to take place within their body. The organs of female reproductive system are;

Organs of female reproductive system: Female reproductive system consists internal and external parts.

Internal parts:
Internal parts are the functional parts of female reproductive system. There are two main internal parts; the uterus and the ovaries.

• Uterus: Uterus (also known as womb) is the major reproductive organ of females. It hosts the developing fetus, produces secretions of the female reproductive system and allows the passage of sperms to fallopian tubes where sperms fertilize with eggs.

• Ovaries: Ovaries are small paired organs located near the pelvic cavity of females. Ovaries produce the female egg cells.

External parts:
External parts are accessory parts of female reproductive system. They help in the process of fertilization, and parturition etc. They are;

• Vulva
• Labia
• Clitoris

Functions of female reproductive system:

The ovaries produce eggs, which are fertilized by sperms and zygote is formed. The development of zygote to a complete human baby takes place in female reproductive system.

Sources:

 

 

P4: Explain the physiology of two named body systems in relation to energy metabolism in the body.

M1: discuss the role of energy in the body.

D1: Analyse how two body systems interrelate to perform a named function/functions.

Energy laws: energy can be defined as the capacy to do work.

The conservation law: Energy cannot be created or destroyed, but it can be transferred or transformed from one form to another (including transformation into or from mass, as matter). The total amount of energy in a closed system never changes.

Energy in a system may be transformed so that it resides in a different state. Energy in many states may be used to do many varieties of physical work. Energy may be used in natural processes or machines, or else to provide some service to society.

Example: when we eat a rich meal with carbohydrates and some vitamins before exercising it will give you energy to run faster etc… do it give us energy and energy comes from food.

Energy forms:

• Chemical energy.
• Heat energy.
• Light energy.
• Sound energy.
• Electrical energy.
• Nuclear energy.

Energy metabolism:

The role of energy in the body

• Energy is needed not only for muscle movement but for many body functions such as blood, Lymph and tissue fluid circulation, breathing, making new cells for breathing, making new cells for growth and repair, transmitting nerve impulses and digesting food.

• Catabolic reactions are the chemical reactions which breakdown molecules to release energy.

• Anabolic reactions are the ones who’s building complex molecules from simple substances and using energy.

Body systems and energy metabolism

The activities involved in supplying energy to the cells include the roles of the cardiovascular, respiratory and digestive systems.

Digestive system:

The digestive system is responsible for taking in food and water and, using enzymes, breaking up complex molecules into simple soluble materials that are capable of passing into the adjacent capillaries of the cardiovascular system.

Metabolism includes all chemical breakdowns (catabolic) and building (anabolic) reactions needed to maintain life.

We need carbohydrates because the most important part on it is glucose, and glucose is the body's major energy fuel. When glucose is oxidized, carbon dioxide and water are formed. The sequential pathways of glucose catabolism are glycolysis, which occurs in the cytosol, and the electron transport chain (in the mitochondria).

During hyperglycemia which means that there is too much glucose in the bloodstream, and it connected usually with diabetes mellitus. Glucose is stored as glycogen or converted to fat. In hypoglycemia, glycogenolysis (it is the Breakdown of glycogen to glucose), gluconeogenesis (it is the formation of glucose, especially by the liver, from non-carbohydrate sources, such as amino acids and the glycerol portion of fats), and fat breakdown occur to restore normal blood glucose levels.

Then fats insulate the body, protect organs, build some cell structures (membranes and myelin sheaths), and provide reserve energy. When carbohydrates are not available, more fats are oxidized to produce ATP (the ATP is to provide energy and run other processes in the body it’s extremely important in Cellular Respiration).

Excessive fat breakdown causes blood to become acidic. Excess dietary fat is stored in subcutaneous tissue and other fat depots.

Then Proteins form the bulk of cell structure and most functional molecules. They are carefully conserved by body cells. Amino acids are actively taken up from blood by tissue cells; those that cannot be made by body cells are called essential amino acids. Amino acids are oxidized to form ATP mainly when other fuel sources are not available. Ammonia, released as amino acids are catabolized, is detoxified by liver cells that combine it with carbon dioxide to form urea.

• The liver is the body's key metabolic organ. Its cells remove nutrients from hepatic portal blood. It performs glycogenesis (glucose converted to and stored as glycogen), glycogenolysis (glycogen broken down into glucose), and gluconeogenesis (formation of glucose from proteins and fats) to maintain homeostasis of blood glucose levels. Its cells make blood proteins and other substances and release them to blood. Fats are burned by liver cells to provide some of their energy (ATP); excesses are stored or released to blood in simpler forms that can be used by other tissue cells. Phagocytic cells remove bacteria from hepatic portal blood. Most cholesterol is made by the liver; cholesterol breakdown products are secreted in bile. Fats and cholesterol are transported in the blood by lipoproteins. LDL's transport cholesterol to body cells; HDL's carry cholesterol to the liver for degradation. Cholesterol is used to make functional molecules and for some structural purposes; it is not used for energy.

• A dynamic balance exists between energy intake and total energy output (heat + work + energy storage). Interference with this balance results in obesity or malnutrition leading to body wasting.

• When the three major types of foods are oxidized for energy, they yield different amounts of energy, Carbohydrates and proteins yield 4 kcal/gram; fats yield 9 kcal/gram. Basal metabolic rate (BMR) is the total amount of energy used by the body when one is in a basal state. Age, sex, body surface area, and amount of thyroxin produced influence BMR.

• Total metabolic rate (TMR) is number of calories used by the body to accomplish all on-going daily activities. It increases dramatically as muscle activity increases. When TMR equals total caloric intake, weight remains constant.

• As foods are catabolized to form ATP, more than 60 percent of energy released escapes as heat, warming the body. The hypothalamus initiates heat-loss processes (radiation of heat from skin and evaporation of sweat) or heat-promoting processes (vasoconstriction of skin blood vessels and shivering) as necessary to maintain body temperature within normal limits. Fever (hyperthermia) represents body temperature regulated at higher-than-normal levels.

Cardiovascular System

• The cardiovascular system transports these simple materials to the liver and body cells via the bloodstream, driven by the pumping action to the heart.

Anabolism

The cardiovascular system provides the body's cells with the oxygen, obtained through the respiratory system, and nutrients, that are provided by the digestive system, they need to generate energy and with the building blocks they need to make larger molecules.

Catabolism

The cardiovascular uses oxygen and nutrients they need to generate energy and adenosine triphosphate in order to maintain the heart tissues and tissues of the network of arteries, veins and capillaries.

Respiratory System
the respiratory system constantly refreshes lung oxygen and disposes of waste products (carbon dioxide and water) through the process of breathing. Dissolved oxygen through the thin alvector walls into the blood stream and is transported to cells. There are Body cells that have a constant delivery of raw materials such as glucose and other nutrients and dissolved oxidation.

Anabolism

the Respiratory System provides a platform for obtaining oxygen for the use in cellular metabolism. Through the use of gaseous exchange oxygen enters the cardiovascular system for distribution around the body.

Catabolism

The Respiratory System also provides a platform for excreting carbon dioxide one of the waste products of cellular metabolism. This is also completed through the use of gaseous exchange. The removal of this waste product ensures that there is space for the oxygen to be collected to meet cellular demand.

How two body systems interrelate together?

The respiratory and circulatory systems work together to deliver oxygen to cells of the body (the lungs through air exchange, and the circulatory system by delivery of hemoglobin containing red cells to the capillaries where oxygen is released into the tissues) and removal of carbon dioxide.

The circulatory system delivers nutrients absorbed through the walls of the small intestine to other organs (such as the liver, muscles, brain, heart), and delivers oxygenated blood to the digestive system.

You breathe in oxygen into your lungs. The oxygen diffuses across the thin walls of the alveoli in the lungs and the thin walls of the blood vessels in the lungs into the blood stream. Here it attaches to the haemoglobin molecules inside red blood cells. The red blood cells are carried by the blood vessels to all parts of the body. The haemoglobin releases oxygen in the periphery, and picks up carbon dioxide (CO2). The CO2 attached to the haemoglobin molecules in the red blood cells is then transported to the lungs, where it diffuses across the walls into the alveoli, and is breathed out.

When your blood gets to your lungs, the oxygen from your lungs get put into your bloodstream. Then it goes back to the heart, with the oxygen-enriched blood being delivered to all parts of your body.

Essentially, the respiratory takes in the air, and the circulatory circulates it around the body. We breathe in air, which contains oxygen, and this oxygen is carried by our red cells around the body. If our respiratory system is poor, our oxygen would not be enough, we would become breathless etc. the respiratory system gives oxygen to the blood cells in the circulatory system. Also, they both contain the lungs and gives blood. The respiratory system provides oxygen to the blood. The circulatory system carries the oxygenated blood throughout the body, keeping cells (and you) alive and functioning well. When you breathe in air it goes in your lungs and the oxygen diffuses into the blood stream via the capillaries. Then the oxygen is carried throughout your body as needed. The respiratory system would not function without the circulatory system, and vice versa. The circulatory system requires oxygen, and it only gets this oxygen when the blood passes through the lungs and collects oxygen to bring to the rest of your body. The respiratory system uses blood to replenish itself within the lungs, continuing its normal function.
The heart pumps blood into the lungs where the blood is oxygenated. The blood is then returned to the heart and the newly oxygenated blood is circulated to the rest of the body.

Sources:

 

 

P5: explain the concept of homeostasis

M2: Predict the homeostatic to the changes in the internal environment during exercise

D2: evaluate the importance of homeostasis in maintaining the healthy functioning of the body

Homeostasis is the technical term for the process of monitoring a constant internal environment (blood, tissue fluid body cell contents and metabolic processes) despite external changes. Homeostasis is a mixture of two words homeo means “body” and stasis means “the same”. Simply put, homeostasis is about keeping the body in balance.

• E.g. if you are too hot you may remove some of your clothing (a voluntary response) and you may sweat (an autonomic response) to help get your body temperature back to normal.
• Examples of conditions that are balanced by homeostasis include temperature, blood sugar, blood oxygen, carbon dioxide, water and urea levels.
• Negative feedback systems require.
• Receptors to detect change.
• A control centre to receive the information and process the response (usually the brain).
• Effectors to reverse the change and re-establish the original state.

This is important because if the internal conditions were not kept in balance, then the enzymes and other chemicals would not be able to function properly. We have lots of mechanisms to keep your body in balance _some of these are voluntary (you control them) and some of them are autonomic (you have no control over them). E.g. if you are too hot you may remove some of your clothing (a voluntary response) and you may sweat (an autonomic response) to help get your temperature back to normal.

Examples of conditions that are balanced by homeostasis include temperature, blood sugar, blood oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water and urea levels.

1. How does breathing rate refer to? The number of times you breathe in a certain amount of time.

2. What is the homeostatic temperature in your body?  body temperature is controlled by the thermoregulatory centre in the hypothalamus. It receives input from two sets of thermo receptors: receptors in the hypothalamus itself monitor the temperature of the blood as it passes through the brain (the core temperature), and receptors in the skin (especially on the trunk) monitor the external temperature. Both sets of information are needed so that the body can make appropriate adjustments.

3. What are blood glucose levels? (Blood glucose level) The blood sugar concentration or blood glucose level is the amount of glucose (sugar) present in the blood of a human or animal.

4. How does homeostasis regulate heart rate? The set process for the regulation of the heart rate is rather complex and is as follows. As an individual exercises, special receptors located within the muscles send impulses to the medulla.

5. How does homeostasis regulate breathing rate? The respiratory control centre of the brain senses that the levels are incorrect and increases both the heart rate and breathing rate to make up the difference. As you stop the activity, the respiratory control centre slows the heart and breathing rate back down to maintain homeostasis in the bloodstream.

6. How does homeostasis regulate blood glucose levels? Blood sugar levels are regulated by hormonal control through a negative feedback system. If the blood sugar level increases to much Beta-cells in the islets of Langerhans from the pancreas will secrete insulin. Now insulin will reduce blood sugar levels in a number of different ways, it will bind to insulin receptors on the cell surface membrane which causes vesicles that carry extra glucose carrier molecules to fuse with the membrane of the cell, this in turn increases the permeability of the cell membrane to glucose and so the cell will increase the uptake of glucose.

Negative feedback systems require:

• Receptors to detect change.
• A control centre to receive the information and process the response (usually the brain).
• Effectors to reverse the change and re-establish the original state.

Negative feedback as a form of regulation:

Negative feedback occurs when an important variable, sometimes known as a key variable, such as the PH of blood and tissue fluid, deviates from the accepted range or limits, and triggers response to counteract or nullify the deviation. The liver glycogen is converted into glucose in order to top up those crucial energy levels in cells.

The brain and nervous system play a vital role in controlling homeostatic mechanisms and they also help us to anticipate when key variables might rise or fall beyond the accepted range. For example, if it is several hours since your last meal and you are feeling tired and cold, you will try to eat a warm, energy-giving meal to counteract these feelings, this can be termed as “feedforward” (rather than feedback), as you are taking steps to avoid a low energy state before it has happened.

Negative feedback systems require:

• Receptors to detect change.
• A control centre to receive the information and process the response.
• Effectors to reverse the change and re-establish the original state.

Most control centres are located in the brain.

• Homeostatic mechanisms for regulation of heart rate:

The heart is controlled by the autonomic nervous system which has two branches, namely the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system. These two systems act rather like an accelerator and a brake on the heart. The sympathetic nervous system is active when the body is undergoing muscular work, fear or stress. It causes each heartbeat to increase in strength as well as causing an increase in heart rate. The parasympathetic nervous system Calms the heart output and is active during resting, peace and contentment. The main parasympathetic nerve is the vagus nerve and if this is served the heart beats faster.

Roles of internal receptors:

Baroreceptors (are sensors located in the blood vessels of several mammals.) detect changes in blood pressure and are found in the walls of aorta and part of the carotid arteries delivering blood to the head and neck and called the aortic and carotid bodies. A small upward change in blood pressure in these arteries often indicate that extra blood has been pumped out by the ventricles as a result of extra blood entering the heart on the venous or right side. Baroreceptors detect the change and delay the information in nerve impulses to the cardiac centres. Activity in the vagus nerve slows the heart rate down and decreases blood pressure back to normal.

Receptors sensitive to temperature are known as the Thermoreceptors and these are present in the skin and deep inside the body. They relay information via nerve impulses to a part of the brain called the hypothalamus, which activates appropriate feedback systems.  

Effects of adrenal on heart rate:

Circulating adrenaline, a hormone from the adrenal gland released during fear, stress and exertion, stimulates the S-A node to work faster, thud boosting the effects of the sympathetic nervous system.  

Effects of the increased body temperature on heart rate:

Thermoreceptors indicating a rise in body temperature to brain cause the hypothalamus to activate the sympathetic nervous system; this in turn causes the heart rate to increase.

• Homeostatic mechanisms for regulation of breathing rate:  

When metabolism produces extra carbon dioxide, for example, breathing rates will increase slightly until this surplus is “blown off” in expiration. Similarly a period of forced ventilation, such as gasping, will lower the carbon dioxide levels in the body and homeostatic mechanisms will stop or slow breathing temporarily until levels return to normal.

Roles of internal receptors:

Internal receptors can be stretch receptors in muscles and tissues that relay nervous impulses to the brain about the status of ventilation from the degree of stretch of muscles and other tissues. The intercostal muscles are the site of many stretch receptors.

Respiratory centre, diaphragm and intercostal muscles:

The brain area responsible for voluntary control of breathing is in the upper part of the brain known as the cerebral cortex. The involuntary centre, known as the respiratory centre, is in the medulla and the area just above, known as the pons. These are both at the base of the brain. Each centre gets information from internal receptors regarding the state of ventilation.

• Homeostatic mechanisms for regulation of body temperature:

Human beings are the only animals that can survive in both tropical and polar regions of the earth. This is largely due to efficient thermo-regulatory homeostatic processes and the use of intelligence, which means that body temperature, varies only minimally. The fundamental precept is to keep the inner core of the body at normal temperatures while allowing the periphery to adapt to changing conditions of external temperature.

At very low temperatures such as -30c, the water component of the body would freeze and at high temperatures such as +50c, enzymes and body proteins would be permanently altered or denatured. Life would not be possible under these conditions so homeostatic regulation of body temperature or thermo-regulation is vital.

Major functions of skin are:

• To protect the underlying tissues against friction damage.
• To waterproof the body.
• To protect deeper structures from invasion by micro-organisms.
• To protect against ultra-violet radiation.
• For thermo-regulation (control of body temperature).
• To relay nerve impulses generated from the specialised skin sensory receptors for heat, cold, touch, pain and pressure, thus informing them of changes in the environment.
• To synthesise vitamin D from sunlight acting on the adipose layers.

Production of heat by the body:

Heat is generated by the metabolic processes taking place in the body. Although energy released during chemical reactions is used to drive processes such as muscle contraction (heat pump, breathing, nerve impulses and movement) some of it always released as heat. Some heat is also gained from hot food and drinks and under some circumstances, from the sun’s rays.

Loss of heat from the body:

Skin capillaries form networks just below the outer layer or epidermis. When you are hot, you need to lose heat from the skin surface to cool yourself down. There are four ways of losing heat from the skin:

• Conduction: warming up anything that you Are in contact with(like clothes and seats) even a pen becomes warm from your hand when you are writing.#
• Convection: this is when you warm up the layer of air next to your skin and it moves upwards (because hot air is less dense and rises), to be replaced by colder air from the ground.
• Radiation: heat will pass from your skin to warm up any colder objects around you and conversely, you will warm up by radiation from any objects hotter than yourself, like a fire or the sun.
• Evaporation of sweat: when liquid water is converted into water vapour (the technical term is evaporation), it requires heat energy to do so. When you are hot, sweating will only cool the skin surface to convert to water vapour and evaporate.

Although conduction and convection take place, they cannot be changed significantly to alter body temperature. The main methods of regulating temperature are by changing radiation and sweat evaporation processes.

Effects of shivering:

Rhythmic involuntary contractions of the skeletal muscles are known as shivering. Muscular activity generated heat so in a cold environment we may stamp our feet, swing our arms, rub our face, hands and feet and also shiver. This is very effective way to generate heat, as it all available to warm the body up.

Implications of surface area to volume ratio in the care of babies:

Babies have a larger surface area to volume ratio than adults and cannot effect changes to gain or lose heat for themselves; this means that they are at risk developing hyperthermia or hypothermia. Babies do not sweat much and new born babies do not shiver. Therefore, it is important in cold weather to wrap babies warmly, including the extremities and the head, and to guard against overheating in hot weather.

Fever:

Fever is one type of hypothermia and is most usually caused by infection other types are heat stroke and heat exhaustion. Factors released as a result of disease act on Thermoreceptors in hypothalamus, raising the upper set point.

Consequently the sufferer feels cold, curls up, pulls on covers, looks pale due to vasonstriction (narrowing of the arterioles) and even experiences intense shivering.  

• Homeostatic mechanisms for regulation of blood glucose levels:

Role of the pancreas, liver, insulin and glycogen:

After a rich meal in carbohydrates (such as rice, bread, pasta and certain vegetables), blood glucose will start to rise. This increased level of glucose stimulates the production of the hormone insulin from the beta cells in the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas.

Insulin has two main functions:

• To regulate the concentration of glucose in the blood.
• To increase the passage of glucose into actively respiring body cells by active absorption.

In the absence of insulin, very little glucose is able to pass through the cell membranes and so the plasma level of glucose rises. Individuals with untreated diabetes mellitus (caused by a lack of insulin secretion) have high plasma glucose levels and this leads to other bionomical circumstances. In healthy people, the plasma glucose hardly varies at all because liver cells, under the control of insulin, convert glucose into liver and muscle glycogen for storage.

When blood glucose starts to fall as a result of fasting or being used up by respiring cells, another hormone, glycogen, from the alpha cells in the islets of Langerhans, is secreted and this converts liver glycogen back into glucose fro release into the bloodstream.

These two hormones regulate the amount of glucose in the blood plasma by negative feedback mechanisms.

Both have receptors attached to their islets cells to identify rising and falling plasma glucose levels. Insulin also promotes the conversion of glucose into fat and delays the conversion of amino acids into energy. Adrenaline, released by the adrenal glands when the sympathetic nervous system is active under stressful conditions, acts antagonistically to insulin and overrides it, to convert glycogen in the liver to glucose. This outpouring of glucose provides energy for muscles to become active under emergency conditions. In addition, adrenaline converts fats to fatty acids for muscle contraction. When the emergency is over, insulin will once be more active and stores any surplus as before

What happens to your body during exercise?

During exercise, your skeletal muscles metabolize faster hence they require more oxygen and nutrients than when they are in the resting phase. As a result of this, the heart pumps blood faster and harder to compensate for this demand. In addition, since the heart works double time to supply blood, the lungs also take in more oxygen and your breathing rate gets high so you tend to hyperventilate also. Aside from that, your energy and fluid stores also gets depleted especially during intense workout so you tend to feel hungry and thirsty after. When you exercise your heart beats faster so that it can pump more blood to the muscles, and your stomach shuts down during exercise so it does not waste energy that the muscles can use. The muscles take in a source when we run we need oxygen so, we could run easily. The blood carries oxygen to every cell in the body.

Homeostasis prevent the cardiovascular system to not over compensating during exercise and when we are not exercising the homeostasis control the heart and let it pump normally when not exercising.

The homeostasis control hormones when exercising. Homeostasis in the respiratory system helps to remove carbon dioxide and water from the body so it allows us to breathe easily when exercising. Homeostasis helps the heart to force blood around the body through a system of blood vessels, arteries, veins and capillaries. Blood carries dissolved oxygen to the body cells and at the same time removes the waste products or respiration (carbon dioxide and water). However, blood is also important in distributing heat around the body, along with hormones, nutrients, salts, enzymes and urea.

Explain the importance of homeostasis in maintaining the healthy functioning of the body?

Temperature regulation of fall and rise above normal ranges

Hypothalamus: the hypothalamus in the brain behaves as a thermostat and changes in the blood temperature. When the temperature of the blood comes the hypothalamus falls, this delivers impulses to organs in the body setting the heat reduced less. The opposite happens when the temperature of the blood enters the hypothalamus rises. The hypothalamus tends to activate the sympathetic nervous system and increase he heart rate when the body gets hot. The thermo-receptors point out an increase in the body temperature delivering messages to the brain. The body faces hypothermia is the body temperature falls or rises above their normal ranges. When the body temperature gets too cold or too hot, messages are mailed from the thermo-regulation in the skin or from the blood to the brain and the hypothalamus. The change that is senses by the brain allows a person to change in their attitude for example, when a person feels cold they may close a window. During Hypothermia when the body temperature falls below the normal temperature of the body can be dangerous as the heat energy is lost from the body than it is produced. Brain is the first feature affected making the person clumsy and slow.

Hypothermia

Hypothermia is a state where the body's normal body temperature of 37°C (98.6°F) drops below 35° (95°F). When the body is exposed to cold the mechanisms are unable to fill in heat that is lost to organisms surroundings. Hypothermia is caused normally when a person is around a cold environment or staying outside for a long period of time in the cold rain or wind. When the body gets too cold it usually acts fast in order to become warm and giving a message to the brain allowing the person to wear more layers of clothing or going inside. However during hypothermia if the cold tends to continue the body's automatic defence will try to prevent any heat loss through various ways and this could be through...

* Shivering to make sure major organs stay at normal temperature,

* Limiting blood flow to the skin, and

* Releasing hormones in order to produce heat.

There are many possible causes of a rapid heartbeat, including:

• Exercise, heavy lifting or other activity that requires exertion

• Fear, pain, anxiety, , anger, or nervousness

•  

• . This may be caused by too little intake of fluids, loss of blood, , , or medications such as diuretics, sometimes called "water pills."

• , also called hypotension

 

• , which is a level of thyroid hormone in the body that is too high

 

• , a condition in which the heart cannot pump blood effectively

• Irregular heartbeats, known as , such as  or . These may be caused by , , and other conditions.

• Low red blood cell count known as  

• Medications or drugs. Albuterol, which is commonly used to treat ,  as well as some over the counter and prescription decongestants can cause rapid heartbeat. Cocaine abuse and alcohol withdrawal are

Other causes of rapid heartbeat.

• Excessive  intake
• Some herbal therapies such as ephedra, also called ‘ma huang’
• Infections. These may include such as a serious blood infection called  and .
• Nerve damage, known as , that affects the nerves attached to the heart. This is often due to , a condition that results in a high level of blood sugar.
• Low oxygen in the blood, also called hypoxia. There can be many causes for this. Examples include  and .

Sources:

 

P6: follow guidelines to interpt and collect data for heart rate, breathing rate and temperature before and after a standard period of exercise.

M3: present data collected before and after a standard of period of exercise with reference to validity.

Hypothesis: ‘heart rate, breathing rate and temperature increasing when exercising.’

Equipment needed:

• Heart rate monitor.
• Thermometer
• Stop watch.

Method:

1. Make sure your partner has been resting for 5 minutes to ensure that they are relaxed.
2. Measure the pulse rate, temperature and how many times they breathe. These are the results for before exercise.
3. Your partner will undertake strenuous exercise for 3 minutes immediately following the exercise take the pulse rate, temperature and how many times they breathe in one minute. These are the results for the after exercise.
4. Record all results.

What do the results show?

I did prove my hypothesis because the results above shows that our heart rate, breathe rate and temperature changes when we exercise. After exercising our heart rate increased to 105 and our breathing rate increased to 54, but the temperature stayed the same.

Some of the measurements were inaccurate because of resting before taking each measurement which will cause the results to be inaccurate, when you are exercising and you want to take the measurements you need a partner to help you measure you breathing, heart, and temperature rate straight away after exercising so the results would be accurate. The equipment that I used in the experiment was accurate but when I did my measurements some of them were inaccurate because I didn’t measure it straight away.

Aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration take place. During aerobic respiration breathing rate increases to bring more oxygen into the body, maintaining homeostasis as the cell are adequately supplied with oxygen. Also there is increased perspiration to cool the body and maintain the body temperature as the heightened metabolic state (due to the exercise) produces heat. During anaerobic respiration in the muscles particularly, lactic acid builds up. This creates and oxygen debt, homeostasis hope to compensate for this debt and there by remove lactic acid from the body (as it is toxic), thus breathing rate is also increased. E.g. (the heart rate increases when exercising so the homeostasis controls the blood to pump around the body so you wouldn’t have heart failure.)

During exercise, my skeletal muscles metabolize faster hence they require more oxygen and nutrients than when they are in the resting phase. As a result of this, the heart pumps blood faster and harder to compensate for this demand. Since the heart works double time to supply blood, the lungs also take in more oxygen and your breathing rate gets high so you tend to hyperventilate also because of that my energy and fluid stores also gets depleted especially during intense workout so you tend to feel hungry and thirsty after.

Conclusion: in summary my findings was that the homeostasis control our breathing rate, heart rate and our temperature so we could do exercise easily and if we didn’t have it we would die, so that explains how much important the homeostasis is.

Sources: