The narrowing of the division of political parties is also apparent, as although there was opposition it was minimal. This is shown, as in August 1914, 14 out of the 110 socialists in the Reichstag argued against the war, before finally voting in favour of war credits, whilst at the end of 1914 only 1 socialist, the extremist Karl Liebknecht, voted against war credits, a number which increased to 20 in the following year. However, despite this opposition the political parties remained narrowed, as these individuals were lone voices, as were all the individuals who argued against the war during the first 2 years, whilst the radical socialists, such as Liebknect and Rosa Luxemburg, who argued for a revolution in order to achieve peace, had a limited impact, as they spent the majority of the war in prison. Furthermore, anti-war organisations, such as the German Peace League, were highly marginal, as they had police, press, public opinion and trade union leadership against them; something significant as this illustrates the range of people who were in favour of the war, particularly those who had previously shown opposition. An explanation for this, which again is evidence for the narrowing political divisions, is the passing of the Enabling Act, the Burgfrieden, on the 4th August; a concept of national unity based on shared suffering which aimed to reinforce the pre-war institutional structures rather than challenge them.
However, during the years of 1916 and 1917, situations changed and instead the political divisions increased once more, despite exceptions, such as the signing of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in March 1918. This is because as the war progressed, losses mounted, with 2.05 million of the 13.2 million men sent to fight in the war killed, and 4.15 injured, whilst the winter of 1916-1917 saw significant shortages in food due to the harsh weather conditions which had a damaging effect on the harvests; particularly the potato harvest. Furthermore, the introduction of the Hindenburg Programme saw increased pressure on the economy, causing dissatisfaction for the peasantry, the urban working class and the middle classes, which was subsequently present in the political parties, and increased their divisions. This is apparent during May and June 1916, as strikers took to the streets of Berlin demanding ‘Freedom, Bread and Peace’, and in April 1917, where 300,000 workers demonstrated for food and for an end to the war, whilst simultaneously imitating those in Russia by forming workers councils. Moreover, the polarisation of German politics became particularly apparent in March 1917, when socialists thrown out of the SPD formed their own party, the USPD (independent socialists), with 100,00 members by 1918, demanding an end to the war and war loans; evidently showing an increase in the divisions of political parties.
The increase in the division of political parties is further apparent throughout 1917, as following the division in the SPD, although they still supported the war it was with decreasing enthusiasm. This is because following America’s entry, an important event in the process of polarisation as the United States were a democracy, and thus not a natural enemy for those who believed in democracy, it became difficult for the SPD to convince their members that the war was just. This becomes further apparent, as in July 1917, the Centre Party and Majority SPD tried to link more money for a peace without victory, rather than a victorious peace, as did Erzberger who persuaded a majority in the Reichstag (212 to 116) in favour of a ‘Peace Resolution’; thus increasing divisions in political parties, as individuals, such as Ludendorff, were strongly opposed to this idea. Not only that, but contrasting pressure parties were formed, as in September 1917 the German Fatherland Party, supported by Ludendorff, Tirpitz and other leading military figures, emerged, shortly followed by the German Fatherland Party which argued for a more moderate peace; again showing opposition between political individuals.
To conclude it seems apparent that the war narrowed political divisions, increasing the national unity felt by individuals and leading parties, such as the Socialists, to join with others in voting in favour of the war and for war credits. However, to a large extent it appears that the war in fact increased divisions, as it led to the emergence and formation of the radical USPD and eventually caused individuals to strike and protest against the war. Furthermore, the varying views held by the SPD and the Centre Party, and the Kaiser and the Chancellor, illustrates the contrasting opinions held, and thus the increasing nature of political divisions during this period.
