Orientalism accounts for one of the significant tensions between East and West. It has determined how Islam is portrayed, treated and perceived by Western states politically and socially. Orientalist discourse has fuelled and motivated the antagonistic foreign policies of Western states it has intensified and inspired Islamophobia. The word Islamophobia refers to an unfounded hostility and fear towards Islam and Arab, Muslim cultures. The Western media have brought about this phenomenon with its subjective and often racist connotations. Evidence of conflict caused by Orientalist discourse is the Algerian war of independence. When France refused to leave Algeria on their account of their ‘civilising mission.’ Orientalist discourse has on going affect via the image, of Arab and Muslims as fanatics, terrorists and fundamentalists. An image that has recurred in discourse surrounding the Arab Israeli conflict the Iranian revolution, Gulf War and relations with states such as Libya and Syria.
It is hard to show how cultural tensions operate, but one visible example would be the hijab and treatment of women in Islamic cultures. The practice of veiling and treatment of women is hugely diverse within the Islamic world, to the West it is tantamount and characterises women of Islamic society. Western discourse and media representations view the hijab as an oppressive constraint a patriarchal feature of Islamic culture. Western feminist discourse is convinced Muslim women need freeing from the veil, as a result of this the hijab has taken on a new meaning and role in Islam. Khameneyi argues the “hijab has become the symbol of the Islamic revolution.” (Afshar/1999:201) In this view the hijab stands as a symbol of the Islamic world, a collective sentiment to Western intrusive powers. Frantz Fanon argues the “in a colonial context the Algerian women, in imposing such a restriction on her self, was deepening her consciousness of struggle and preparing for combat.” (Fanon/1989:66) The Muslim veil is a visible reminder of the cultural differences between East and West.
Human rights issues have also caused tensions in relations, as the West and Islam have very different attitudes to human rights. The modern Western concept of human rights has been collectivised and recorded in the United Nations universal declaration, which is concerned with individual rights. This declaration and the concept of human rights has been correlated and produced by governments of the Western world. They are of a legislative nature and sanctioned by the hierarchy of the West. The Islamic world has a different approach to the issue of human rights. Islamic rejects contemporary Western notions. In Islam rights have been conferred by God, Maududi agues “no legislative assembly in the world, or any government on earth has the right or authority to make any amendment or change in the rights conferred by God.” (Maududi/1998) Islam has an alternative belief on what constitutes human rights Islam’s refusal to accept and recognise human rights causes tensions in international relations. Western interventions have been implemented on the basis of securing rights UN Aid programmes have been devised and implemented in many Islamic states. Some scholars of Islam argue, “Western human rights interference violates sovereignty” (Halliday/2002:25) this argument carries no validity, as the Middle East has a deplorable human rights record. It is possible to argue that in some Islamic states human rights violations are being committed against Muslims in the name of religion. Halliday points out “those who protest the loudest about violations are inhabitants of those countries, that is Muslims themselves.” (Halliday/2002:25) The rejection of individual human rights in Islam is aligned with its rejection of democracy, secularism and the concept of a nation state. Difficulty with issues surrounding Islam and Human rights is the double standards of the West as they have openly supported regimes, which violate human rights. A prime example of the double standards of the West is Tony Blair’s reply when questioned on the Saudi treatment on women and religious minorities. Blair remarks, “I’m not going to get into the business of attacking the Saudi system.”(Time/2001:43) When challenged by the interviewer, that he is prepared to criticise the Afghan system on the same issue, “he says yes, but we are in conflict with the Taliban regime.”
This essay has so far examined cultural issues surrounding the West and Islam. The frequent underlying tenor in these tensions is Islam’s religious values and traditions. These tensions have arisen from the concept of Western modernity, one way of characterising and understanding modernity is in terms of the Western Enlightenment. Central to Enlightenment thought was the acceptance of scientific rationality by accepting the values of scientific reason and logic meant all myths and holy ideals had to be abolished. Descartes argued, “reason is universal, objective and autonomous when used according to a method enables science and society to progress” (Robinson/1999:13) The British Industrial Revolution was a product of the Enlightenment and marks the Western acceptance of scientific laws and values. Western societies grew owing to this emphasis on rationalism, individualism and democracy. Western societies changed to favour consumerism and materialism, the role of the Church and religious values has diminished in the Western world. Islam on the other hand did not witness an Enlightenment of scientific ideas thus Islam favoured orthodoxy over reason.
Western modernity is an evolving process; contemporary modernity has resulted in the phenomenon of Globalisation. There is no one defining definition of Globalisation although one defining characteristic is “it appears to justify the spread of Western culture and capitalist society” (Waters/1995: 3) it does this by promoting economic co- prosperity, the driving force of globalisation is the spread of business, modernisation, culture and the flow of Western ideas. Coca Cola, IBM Shell Oil and McDonalds are all visible cultural expressions of Globalisation. The defeat of communism and the change in world order gave rise to Western capitalism. As Francis Fukuyama captured in his book ‘The End of History And The Last Man.’ Here Fukuyama argued “we are at the end of history because there is only one system that will continue to dominate world politics, that of the liberal democratic West”(Fukuyama/1993:28) This view is one of the targets of said critique and has meant that globalisation and modernisation is on a direct collision course with Islam in the 21st Century. However the image of a simplistic split between the modern West and traditionalist Islam is not always well founded.
The question of modernisation is a much-contested concept within the Islamic world and has sparked different reactions. One reaction supports the imitation of the West, accepting modernization and Westernisation as indispensable. It aims to replace Islamic culture and lifestyle, including the economic and political systems, with Western ones. Mossadeq’s Iran, Nasser’s Egypt and Turkey are all examples of this view. Another reaction blames Western modernity and colonization for the fall of the Islamic civilization. The Taliban and hard line Iranian Ayatollahs is an example. This reaction is popular and has gained momentum within the Islamic world figures like Osama bin Laden and Saddam Hussein have popularised this view resulting in direct violence against the West. Islamic Fundamentalism is a major factor causing tensions in interactions between Islam and the West, although it is not representative of Islam on the whole. Bassam Tibi Argues “fundamentalism is a powerful challenge to the existing order of the international system of secular nation states” Bassim/2002:3) Islamic fundamentalism is not only a threat to world peace it could also be conceived as a threat to the advancement of Muslim societies. Muslim Scholars from all over the world have condemned the terrorist attacks of September the 11th Sheikh Yousef Quaradawi argues, “the world must make a distinction between what Islam says and what some misguided individuals do in its name.” (Muslim news/2001) Due to Orientalist thought Western media and elites have been guilty of blaming Islam in general, for the attacks on the world Trade Centre and the anti- American sentiments that are evident in the Middle Eastern states. It is difficult to construct an argument around modernity because it is difficult to define; Noam Chomsky believes blaming globalisation for the September the 11th attacks is extremely convenient. It covers up the way in which specific actions by US governments have caused conflicts. He adds that “the Bin Laden network, have little concern for globalisation and cultural hegemony” ( Chomsky/2001:30) this seems to be confirmed by interviews with Bin Laden. Further more Western interventions have often been exceedingly hostile to Islamic modernist regime as in cases of the Suez crisis and the fall of Mosadeq. In contrast, the US gave Aid to fundamentalist guerrillas against a pro Soviet modernist government in Afghanistan in the1980s.
Other factors that steam from globalisation and add to the tensions in politics of the Islamic world and the West include the issue of Oil. Oil is one commodity that is most important to the industrial West. The Worlds biggest oil supply is located in the Islamic World the desire of the West to control and access this supply has resulted in armed conflict. The USA has to the detriment of the UN human rights charter propped up and supported undemocratic often, violent regimes to secure long-term accession of oil at reasonable prices. U.S intervention policies in Saudi Arabia, Iran and later toleration of Saddam Hussein are prime examples. U.S oil policies in the Middle East have created huge economic disparities within the Islamic World. Several large corporations that have innate ties to Western governments dominate the Global oil trade. With respect to oil America did not hesitate to throw its weight around in the Arab world. It could be argued through the process of Globalisation, the West in effect is using international institutions, military power and economic resources to run the world in ways that will maintain Western predominance protect Western interests and promote Western political and economic values. Evidence for the importance of oil as a cause of tension, is the high level Western involvement in the Middle East compared to for instance, Sub Saharan Africa where the West’s economic interests are less substantial.
Another significant tension between Islam and the West is the Israeli- Palestinian conflict the struggle between the Israelis and the Palestinians is one of the most enduring and volatile of world conflicts. The root of this divergence lies in historical and religious claims to the land by both the Jewish and Arab populations. Western influence has played a large part in the history of this dispute it was in fact Britain who first intervened in this region. By issuing the Balfour declaration, which pledged to help the Jewish people establish a national home in Palestine. The Jewish state was to be created in consensus and economic union with a Palestinian state. The Palestinians never agreed or accepted the British declaration. Intervention decreased during World War II and Palestine witnessed an influx of Jewish immigrants. The fear of Jewish domination was the catalyst for Palestinian unrest and uprisings the Balfour declaration and British foreign policy was inadequate.
In search of a peaceful and practical solution the Palestinian issue was passed to the United Nations in 1947. The United Nations proposed a partition of the land into two separate states this was heavily opposed by the Palestinians but the Jewish welcomed and accepted the partition. The Palestinians questioned the authority of the United Nations the Jewish Zionists took advantage. When British forces pulled out of Palestine in 1948 the state of Israel was immediately declared this angered the Palestinians and surrounding Arab armies attacked Israeli forces this marks the first Arab Israeli War.
What is significant about this war is the fact that Israel by force occupied more territory than was granted in the UN mandate hence the lines of territory were drawn by Israel. It was Western Imperial power that sealed Palestinian fate by favouring and backing an Israeli state. On the surface Zionism and Western liberalism were compatible Zionism accepted the laws of scientific thinking. The Jewish state believed in separation of Church and state, which is an essential feature of the Capital West. Said believed that the Israeli state mirrored the values of Western liberalism Said argues “in liberalism Zionism saw itself as it wanted itself to be.”(Said/1979:38)
Thus Orientalist thinking led the West to favour Jewish Zionism over Arab’s Islam.
Western interventions have led to displacement and dispossession of Arabs in Palestine. Evidence for Orientalism can be found in the bias of Israeli rhetoric “Palestinian fighters were “gangs” and the uprisings were called riots” (Avnery/2001:311) Israel with the backing of the West have been successful in depoliticising Palestinian reasons for conflict. Israeli rhetoric and the subjective attitudes of Western interventions lead the Palestinians and the Arabs to believe that the “Jews had been implanted in the country by Western Imperialism in order to subjugate the Arab world and take control of its treasures.” (Avnery/2001:311) Oil being the biggest and richest treasure, this belief fuels Arab nationalism and abhorrence of the West early interactions between the Arab world and the West were riddled with betrayal and conspiracy this in itself creates tensions and blocks co-operation between East and West. But adding insult to injury is the contemporary relationship between Israel and America.
America has played the biggest part in the consolidation and creation of the modern state of Israel. Israel has developed into a fully-fledged militarised state it holds the status of a regional superpower. This is all owing to U.S. aid packages and support; Israel receives approximately 1/3 of total U.S aid to foreign countries. Since 1949 “altogether Israel has received more than $90 billion in assistance”(Bard/2002) America has turned a blind eye to the frivolities of the Israeli state. The activity of the state of Israel is a major cause of instability in the Middle East. Israel has ethnically cleansed the Palestinians placing them in extreme poverty and committing deplorable human rights offences. Such as the refusal of Palestinians the right to return home and the Chabera and Sahtila massacres. American foreign policy since the 11th of September have made it clear to the World, what actions can be defined and considered as terrorism and what actions can not. America considers the acts of Palestinians against Israeli civilians and soldiers to be acts of terrorism. However the U.S appears to believe that no acts against Palestinians by Israelis constitute terrorism. This is a prime example of double standards and adds to the tensions in the already unhinged politics of East and West. The US repeated veto of UN resolutions concerning Israel remains a thorn in the side of relations between the Islamic world and West. Israel’s actions make Western rhetoric on issues such as international aggression; human rights and weapons of mass destruction sound hollow and hypocritical to Islamic ears.
This essay has accounted for the major tensions between the Islamic world and the West the underlying and recurring characteristic is Orientalism. This has framed the West’s understanding, perception and intervention in the Islamic world. Cultural issues, economic modernity and the Palestinian question are inseparable when evaluating tensions between the West and Islam.
However I feel that Orientalism is an overwhelming if not the predominate factor that underlies a number of the other issues and recurs across conflicts. The situation however is complex and there is some plausibility to all the explanations offered above, with the exception of the explanation, which blames Islamic culture for conflict, an explanation that is over simplistic and undermined by Said’s critique. To conclude, there are a number of causes of tension between Islam and West, of which Western Orientalist discourse is the most significant.
Bibliography
Ashfar, H 1999 Islam And Feminisms: An Iranian Case Study Women’s Studies At York Macmillan Series.
AmJad Moiz 2002 URL: 03/01/03
Avnery Uri 2001 80 Theses For a New Peace Camp The Marxist July/August 2001 Vol 8 no 8.
Bard, Mitchell 2002 URL: 03/01/03
Bassim, Tibi 2002 Challenge of Fundamentalism Political Islam and New world Order University of California London.
Chomsky, Noam 2001 9/11 New York Severn Stories Press.
Fanon, Frantz 1989 Studies In A Dying colonialism London Earth Scan Publishers.
Fukuyama, Francis 1993 End of history and the Last Man London Penguin Publishers
Halliday Fred 2001 September 11, 2001: Causes & Consequences 2002 London Saqi Books.
Huntington S 1993 The Clash of Civilisations Foreign Affairs Summer 1993.
Maududi Allamah Abu al-A’la, 1998 Human Rights in Islam. Al Tawhid Journal, Vol. IV No. 3 Rajab-Ramadhan1407. Located on URL: . 06/01/03.
Morrow, Lance 2001 Case for rage and retribution Times Magazine Supplement 11/Sep/2001.
Muslim News 2001 URL: 09/01/03
Robinson D 1999 Nietzsche and Postmodernism Cambridge Icon Books ltd.
Said, E 1997 Covering Islam How The Media And the Experts Determine How We See The Rest Of The World. London Vintage Publishers.
Said, E 1978 Orientalism Western Conception of the Orient. London Penguin Books.
Said, E 1979 The Question of Palestine. London Vintage Publishers.
Sered, D 1996 URL: 10/01/03
Time 2001 Interview With Tony Magazine Blair Time magazine 10/12/2001
Waters M 1995 Globalization London Routledge Publishers.
